University of Central Florida
STARS
Electronic Theses and Dissertations, 2004-2019
2005
Negotiating Place: Multiscapes And Negotiation In Haruki
Murakami's Norwegian Wood
Kevin Gladding
University of Central Florida
Part of the Japanese Studies Commons
Find similar works at: https://stars.library.ucf.edu/etd
University of Central Florida Libraries http://library.ucf.edu
This Masters Thesis (Open Access) is brought to you for free and open access by STARS. It has been accepted for
inclusion in Electronic Theses and Dissertations, 2004-2019 by an authorized administrator of STARS. For more
information, please contact STARS@ucf.edu.
STARS Citation
Gladding, Kevin, "Negotiating Place: Multiscapes And Negotiation In Haruki Murakami's Norwegian Wood"
(2005). Electronic Theses and Dissertations, 2004-2019. 326.
https://stars.library.ucf.edu/etd/326
NEGOTIATING PLACE: MULTISCAPES AND NEGOTIATION IN HARUKI
MURAKAMI’S NORWEGIAN WOOD
by
KEVIN DAWSON GLADDING
B.A. University of Central Florida, 2002
A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of Master of Arts
in the Department of English
in the College of Arts and Sciences
at the University of Central Florida
Orlando, Florida
Spring Term
2005
© Kevin Dawson Gladding
ii
ABSTRACT
In Murakami’s Norwegian Wood, romance and coming-of-age confront the growing
trend of postmodernity that leads to a discontinuity of life becoming more and more common in
post-war Japan. As the narrator struggles through a monotonous daily existence, the text gives
the reader access to the narrator’s struggle for self- and societal identity. In the end, he finds his
means of self-acceptance through escape, and his escape is a product of his attempts at
negotiating the multiple settings or “scapes” in which he finds himself. The thesis follows the
narrator through his navigation of these scapes and seeks to examine the different way that each
of these scapes enables him to attempt to negotiate his role in an indifferent and increasingly
consumerist society.
The Introduction discusses my overview of the project, gives specifics about Murakami’s
life and critical reception and outlines my particular methodology. In the overview section, I
address the cultural and societal tensions and changes that have occurred since the Second World
War. Following this section, I provide a brief critical history of Murakami’s texts, displaying not
only his popularity, but also the multiple disagreements that arise over the Japanese-ness of his
work. In my methodology section, I plot my eco-critical, eco-feminist, eco-psychological and
deconstructive procedure for dissecting Murakami’s text. The subsequent chapters perform a
close reading of Murakami’s text, outlining the different scapes and their attempts at establishing
identity. Within these chapters, I have utilized subheadings as I felt they were needed to mark a
change not on theme, but on character and emphasis. My conclusion reasserts my initial
argument and further establishes the multiscapes as crucial negotiations, the price and product of
which is self-identity.
iii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
First and foremost, I want to thank my Lord and Savior Jesus Christ for seeing me
through this process and for never failing to uplift my soul and inspire my spirit. Also, I thank
my parents, my sister Melanie and her husband Tim for their never failing love and support. I
also want to acknowledge a special thanks to my wife Marisol for her encouragement and
fortitude through this project. She has been my constant companion and edification. Lastly, I
thank my thesis advisor Dr. Murphy for his patience and help through this process and Dr. Logan
and Dr. Meehan for their input and wisdom. Thank you all for everything.
iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION................................................................................ 1
Overview of the Project .................................................................................................. 1
Background of the Author .............................................................................................. 6
Critical Reception ......................................................................................................... 10
Methodology ................................................................................................................. 14
CHAPTER TWO: LANDSCAPE AS NOSTALGIC, MARGINAL AND IDEAL........ 19
Nostalgia ....................................................................................................................... 21
Marginal........................................................................................................................ 26
Ideal............................................................................................................................... 37
CHAPTER THREE: CITYSCAPE—TALKING ABOUT TAMPONS......................... 46
CHAPTER FOUR: PSYCHESCAPE—MEMORY, IMORTALITY AND ESCAPE ... 64
CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSION.................................................................................. 81
LIST OF REFERENCES.................................................................................................. 87
v
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
Overview of the Project
In 1987, Murakami released Norwegian Wood, the novel that captivated its audience and
catapulted Murakami into the position of an international idol with a fanatical fan-base. Donna
Storey observes that this book sold more than a million copies in three months, and more than
four million copies by 1989 (114). What resonated in the minds and hearts of an audience
composed of more than four million Japanese readers? After all, when Mary Elizabeth Williams
reviews this novel, she marks it merely as “a tender, straightforward coming of age story” (1).
Other critics have noted this text is significant only because it marks a breaking away from his
detective-style fiction towards the genre of romance. However, while a casual perusal of this
text might suggest such a simple analysis, I contend that the story is more intricate than
Williams’s assessment implies. Indeed, the story requires an investigation into why Murakami
combines traditional Japanese culture with distinctly Western subject matter.
This apparent paradox is the tool that Murakami uses to encompass the entirety of a
Japan whose people and culture are wedged between one extreme of the fading modern era and
the other extreme of the growing trend of postmodernism. In other words, Murakami’s text
resides on the margin, in a place between boundaries. Norwegian Wood’s massive popularity put
some more traditional authors and critics ill at ease. These critics were concerned with the fact
that Norwegian Wood failed to adhere to the traditional boundaries meant for “pure” literature, a
topic that I will define and address in more depth later. What I want to point out here is that in
Norwegian Wood, Murakami depicts that very struggle within the issues of acceptance and place.
This issue of boundaries, of pushing beyond them and crossing over them refers us to the idea of
place. Murakami refuses to stay within the set, normative confines of Japanese literature, and his
1
narrator follows suit. In fact, Watanabe, the narrator of Norwegian Wood, finds himself stuck
between the unstable and unprofessed love of the tragic heroine Naoko, and the volatile, yet
confessed love of Midori, the lost but resilient survivor. Watanabe is always caught in the gray
zone, between boundaries, trying desperately to find one that is stable or trying to weld the two
into a workable unit. William Slocombe writes, “Murakami seems engaged in a postmodern
project of merging these two divisions together” (6). Thus, Watanabe becomes Murakami’s
image of the stereotypical, post-teen Japanese male standing between the two extremes of past
and present, modern and postmodern, trying to negotiate between them or, perhaps, combine
them until he fully establishes a sense of place.
What is the purpose of this pull and push against cultural norms? As I have mentioned
previously, Murakami exhibits what his critics fear: a Japan that is not the place they want it to
be, a Japan that has changed beyond their ability to control it or adapt to it. But Murakami is not
purposefully trying to ostracize himself or estrange himself from his fellow authors. Rather, his
goal is to help establish Japan’s sense of place within this fairly new globalized economy.
From my reading of Norwegian Wood, I observe that place is the one aspect that is both
missing and desired. Places play an important role within the text, more important than that of
mere setting. Watanabe is in motion throughout the novel, traveling from urban to rural, from
bars to theaters, from woman to woman; and Murakami makes a point of including actual place
names and locations. At one point, Watanabe even takes a month-long journey across Japan to
get over Naoko’s death. For the duration of the novel, he tries to find a place. If finding one
fails, he tries to create one. He passes back and forth between the boundaries of city and
countryside, between being befriended and being alone. Regarding this idea of transience,
2
Storey makes an interesting point by noting that Watanabe’s name, when written in character,
has two distinct definitions:
One means “to dissolve” and symbolizes his awareness that the clear-cut boundaries set
up between life and death, sanity and madness, do in fact blur into one another. The
other means “to pass” through or “to be understood,” suggesting that the narrator himself
passes back and forth between these permeable boundaries. (128-29)
Clear-cut boundaries do not exist for Watanabe. One set of boundaries lacks the breadth or
flexibility to encompass all that Watanabe is and all that he represents. To verify this claim, we
have only to examine the multiple crossing of boundaries from Tokyo to the sanatorium and
from city to city. One boundary is incapable of holding or representing him. Therefore, the
story requires three scapes to accomplish the narrator’s goal and establish a sense of place. In
the following pages of this chapter, I will outline the three scapes that Watanabe uses to establish
place; I will address the major critical reception of Murakami’s text; and I will sketch my own
methodology for interpreting this text. Following this introductory chapter, I will provide one
chapter on each scape and display how these scapes attempt to address the problem of place.
There are three separate and equally important settings, or what I will label “scapes,”
which persist throughout the textual narrative. But why not use simply one overarching scape?
Does the use of more than one scape somehow further his objective? In part because the text is
postmodern, and in part because his ideas span a large array of issues and topics, three scapes are
necessary to capture and contain his multifaceted project. One scape is insufficient. By
themselves, each of the three scapes falls short. Not one is solely suited for the task. Indeed, the
entire narrative is a negotiating process within which the narrator tries in multiple ways and in
multiple scapes to establish his place within postmodern Japan. I do not pretend that other
scapes are not available for consideration. However, the three scapes I have chosen are the
3
scapes most often employed within the text. These varied scapes function in a larger capacity
than mere geographical compasses or trivial backgrounds. The three major scapes I want to
examine are landscape, cityscape and psychescape.
Murakami establishes a connection between the narrator’s emotions and the landscape,
using landscape as a symbol to clue the reader into the emotional state of the narrator. However,
the focus of this scape is not simply symbolism, but what that symbolism represents, not the
signifier, but the signified. In my assessment of the landscape, I will tie the establishment of
place in postmodern society to nostalgia, displaying the way that landscape serves as a host for
Watanabe’s nostalgia. Following this analysis, I will discuss the idea of landscape as a
marginalizing agent, as an entity that marginalizes women in order to reestablish a cultural norm.
Essentially, I will explore the employment of landscape as both a means of identification and
exploitation. Lastly, I will show how Watanabe constructs the landscape as a cultural ideal, as a
form of cultural longing for a forgotten connection to agrarianism. In so doing, I will
simultaneously exhibit how Naoko is the embodiment of that ideal. As an ideal, the landscape
and Naoko contain the elements of peace, beauty, healing and life, elements absent from his
everyday life. Like most ideals, this one eventually fails, but it serves as a temporary means of
escape and nostalgia for our displaced narrator.
Opposite the landscape is the cityscape, the urban environment. Like the landscape, the
cityscape also has a character epitomizing it. This epitomization is found mainly in the character
of Midori, although I will include an examination of Nagasawa as well in order to broaden my
argument. Within the cityscape, an ideal is not an option (or at least not a realistic one), as
Nagasawa unhesitantly remarks. Contrary to the beauty and life found within the landscape, the
cityscape offers little but claustrophobia, death, decay and suffering. Rather than the serenity
4
offered by the agrarian ideal of the natural world, the cityscape is a wilderness of confining
confusion and consumerism. However, the cityscape is the one truly stable scape within the text.
It is a textual anchor, if you will, perhaps because it functions as the fulcrum of industrial,
postmodern Japan. Unlike the landscape which is slowly diminishing, due in no small way to the
growth of the city, the cityscape is the center of capitalist consumerism. What it lacks in healing
and peace, it makes up for in large doses of reality. Oftentimes, Watanabe finds himself within
the cityscape wistfully longing for the landscape. Thus, the cityscape functions not so much as
an escape, but as a realistic environment, one that directly contrasts with the fading landscape,
and one within which the characters find themselves trying to negotiate their sense of place.
The last scape I want to address is the psychescape. Accepting and comprehending this
scape is necessary for a full understanding of textual negotiation of place, especially considering
that the foundation of the narrative resides within the psyche of our narrator. Indeed, the
psychescape is the one scape that the reader never leaves. We are in Watanabe’s head for the
duration of the story. However, the psychescape serves an even greater purpose than hosting our
narrative. Its overarching task is to provide a final means of escape and negotiation to the
narrator. When the cityscape becomes too much and there is no time or feasible way to escape to
the landscape, the psyche becomes the refuge. When defining his identity in terms of place
becomes impossible, especially with the vying of the two women from both other scapes,
Watanabe turns inward, attempting to work out all of his problems internally. The entire book is
a textual projection of his psyche, as he recalls the events of his life from eighteen years in the
future. Therefore, the psychescape becomes the final refuge in a desperate attempt to establish
his place, and it is, as I hope to show, the link that tries to reconcile the other two otherwise
opposed scapes.
5
I believe that the multiple scapes are necessary in order to provide Watanabe different
avenues through which he can express himself and in which he can continue the negotiation
process. If Watanabe is Murakami’s depiction of the new, postmodern, late twentieth century
Japanese male, then Watanabe must confront the equally multifaceted and evolving Japan. The
many and various scapes are a backdrop against which we can see the different mannerisms and
behaviors of Watanabe, and so that, through Watanabe, we can see the changes occurring in
postmodern Japan. All three of these scapes will result in a close reading of specific topics using
specific critical methods that I will outline in my Methodology section. Before I venture too far
into my critical method or the text’s critical reception, however, I think it is important to
examine, at least briefly, the life and background of our author Haruki Murakami. Such an
investigation will display Murakami’s difficulties in creating his own sense of place and, thus,
offer further support for my claim that the characters within Norwegian Wood are constantly
negotiating their sense of place.
Background of the Author
Haruki Murakami is to the Japanese what Hollywood stars are to Americans. His literary
career began in the late 1970s and earned him popular acclaim that propelled him into the
national and international spotlight. He became so popular, in fact, that he fled Japan to live in
relative seclusion. For several years, he resided in the United States, guest lecturing at Princeton,
as well as residing in Italy and Greece. In these locations, he was less easily recognized or
altogether unknown, at least until the translation of his texts into multiple national languages.
However, Murakami’s life began much differently than it now appears to his readers.
6
Born to parents who were both Japanese literature professors, Murakami began a life
steeped in a Japanese literary tradition, a tradition to which his father strictly adhered. However,
Murakami rebelled against the strains of this traditionalism and undertook the task of reading
(and later translating) American Modernist literature, including authors such as F. Scott
Fitzgerald and Raymond Carver. Jay Rubin writes, “[Murakami] drank deeply at the foreign
spring—all the more deeply, perhaps, in rebellion against a rather traditionalist family” (491).
Verifying the truth of Rubin’s assessment is not at all difficult. This “foreign spring” appears in
the form of various Western (and particularly American) allusions within his texts. From jazz
music to pizza, Murakami’s texts incorporate a plethora of subject matter that is not traditionally
Japanese. Slocombe writes, “Even the titles of Murakami’s novels evoke Western popular
culture, such as Norwegian Wood (a song by The Beatles), Dance Dance Dance (a song by The
Dells), and South of the Border, West of the Sun (based on a song by Nat King Cole)” (5).
Murakami even went so far as to use English terminology in his text, another facet of his writing,
pulled directly from his exposure to Western literature and his translation work. In one sense,
Kenzaburo Ōe and other traditionalist Japanese authors are correct in claiming that Murakami’s
writing is not Japanese. For, indeed, Murakami’s work portrays an uncanny stylistic similarity to
the works of Western, “hard-boiled” writers. However, I believe that these similarities
underscore Murakami’s perception of Japan as an evolving nation, rather than an intentional
move away from traditional Japanese literature.
With the end of the Second World War, Japan entered an era of expansion. As the
country’s economy began recovering from the blows dealt to it during this war, Japanese culture
began to open its borders and look oversees for cultural support and definition. Rubin writes,
“Murakami . . . grew up in a newly affluent Japan that still admired America for its wealth and
7
the energy of its culture” (491). This search for cultural definition led to an Americanization of
Japanese culture and ended with a cultural shift to capitalist consumerism. Aoki Tamotsu writes,
“Murakami presents a self-portrait of the Japanese that is both piercing and sophisticated, of a
people emerging from the 1970s shaped by rapid growth and development, yet grounded firmly
in the 1960s. His is a portrait of a people born from the moderation of contemporary Japanese
society” (274). With its wartime success, America was viewed as the bastion of cultural
superiority. Indeed the importance of American influence on Japanese culture marked a change
in literature as well (Slocombe 4). Matthew C. Strecher says plainly that American popular
culture deeply impacted Japan and that this impact “created a cultural ideology which continues
to inform the development of Japanese society through the period of ‘rapid growth’ in the 1970s
and 1980s” (“Magical” 266).
Although his characters lack some of the more traditional Japanese qualities, morals or
behaviors, Murakami’s characters are striving to attain these particular aspects. Because of their
current position within an evolving culture, they are often forced to interpret their lives and the
lives around them in new ways. Murakami’s novels address a Japan that has shifted culturally
and literarily away from the Japanese idealism that gripped the country prior to World War II.
After their defeat in World War II, however, this idealism faded, and Japan became “consciously
obsessed with defining precisely what it meant to be Japanese” (Strecher, “Purely Mass” 373).
This need for definition is what controls much of Murakami’s work. Murakami’s portrayal of
Western subject matter is not an intentional separation from all of Japanese literature, but an
attempt to define a Japanese society in which heterogeneity has largely replaced homogeneity.
Knowing this background information allows us to suggest that many of Murakami’s
books, including Norwegian Wood, reflect his life. He matured during an era of economic boom
8
and political unrest as exhibited by Zenkyoto, the popular student uprising, the purpose of which
was to provide “a means of self-identification, connection with something positive and dynamic”
(Strecher, “Magical” 264-65). Thus, his characters face many of the same challenges and
situations he himself saw. Storey affirms this claim when she writes, “The sense of limitless
potential for change in society coincided with the beginning of Murakami’s own college career”
(123). Murakami’s mention in Norwegian Wood of the 1960s attempted student revolution
provides us with a specific reference in which to place Murakami.
Essentially, Murakami’s life, like his book, presents us with a complex, paradoxical
existence. In Slocombe’s words, Murakami’s novel explores “both Japan’s place in the global
market and the place of Western culture within Japanese society” (1). Part of this shift toward
Western culture and ideas has to do with the influx of television and American programming
within Japanese society (Strecher, “Purely Mass” 373). The introduction of American television
opened Japanese culture to a wealth of new perspectives and cultural thought processes. What
Slocombe and Strecher suggest and what I want to reaffirm is that Murakami addresses the issue
of Japan’s place within a growing form of capitalism and consumerism and, simultaneously, the
West’s place within Japan. I believe the purpose of this exploration is to discern, more than
anything else, this sense of place, and of belonging in a world that has shifted so dramatically
away from all that was once a definitive part of Japanese culture. In order to create a workable
sense of place, his characters must observe, participate within, and test the different scapes
available to them. Like Murakami’s life, the lives of his characters reveal a complexity that
becomes the impetus for exploring the multi-scapes within this narrative.
9
Critical Reception
Before I outline my own critical methodology, I think it is profitable to examine the
criticism already available on Murakami and Norwegian Wood. I have already touched upon the
overall critical assessment of Murakami’s texts, but I want to reiterate that much of it has been
cruel. Slocombe writes that much of Murakami’s work has received only minimal critical
attention (1). Echoing this idea, Storey writes that by 1989, “literary critics had commented only
upon the novel’s amazing popularity without providing any analysis or evaluation of its literary
quality” (116). Since 1989, a fair amount of time has elapsed, bringing more worthy and suitable
criticism to the literary community’s attention. However, not until recently have critics begun to
pay his works the attention due to an internationally known author, and still, many of those
individuals performing these critiques have found it difficult to say anything kind about his
work, especially those critics hailing from his own country.
The major thrust of the more contemporary criticism addresses the Japanese-ness of
Murakami’s texts. To many traditional writers such as Kenzaburo Ōe, Murakami’s texts are too
postmodern, shifting away from “pure” Japanese literature because they propose multiple
interpretations and display various social problems without suggesting a workable solution, as
Ōe’s texts do. Strecher writes, “Ōe’s view of pure literature as ‘sincere’ is always complemented
by the desire to effect change in the world, or to point the direction that change should go”
(“Purely” 367-68). Norwegian Wood lacks this directional element; it fails not to address the
issues, but rather to solve the issues. Along these lines, Yoshio Iwamoto writes, “Some Japanese
critics have expressed dissatisfaction with Murakami, claiming that his works lack a deep-seated
sociopolitico-historical awareness” (298). Murakami’s texts further display this failure to
articulate traditionally Japanese ideas in their utilization of decidedly English vernacular and
10
terminology, a fact “mourned by traditionalists as the death of Japanese language” (Slocombe 5).
Thus, Ōe and other critics actually accuse Murakami of directly attacking all that is truly
Japanese.
In addition to being instrumental in bringing the Japanese language to its end, some
critics believe that Murakami dares to undermine history itself. Strecher addresses this issue
when he writes, “In fact, Murakami often subverts the typically significant events of history in
favor of observations drawn from the history of popular culture, typically American in character”
(“Magical” 265). Indeed, Murakami is as likely to refer to a particularly volatile era of political
unrest by referring to a musical piece from that time period, as he is to refer to the event itself.
Murakami’s refusal to stay within the traditional cultural strictures is a rebellion of sorts, but his
purpose is not to incite critics against him. Instead, his goal is to address a Japanese culture that
no longer follows the same cultural codes it once did.
While the results of this rebellion are textually evident, their cultural ramifications are
somewhat problematic, especially for his Japanese audience. The true problem that arises is one
of placement, the issue that will control the flow and subject matter of this thesis. In Japan’s
literary tradition, there are two distinct categories: junbungaku [“pure” literature] and
taishubungaku [“mass” literature]. Murakami fits into neither category, at least not for the critics
who are trying so desperately to categorize him. Storey observes that Norwegian Wood “tests
the boundaries between pure and popular literature. Like all such in-between entities,
Murakami’s work causes some discomfort and confusion in those who feel they must protect
those boundaries” (117). Kenzaburo Ōe is one of those people, unable to cope with the
prevalence of so much Western material in Murakami’s writing. Slocombe suggests that Ōe’s
criticism of Murakami is “rooted deeply in the conflict between junbungaku [‘pure’ literature]
11
and taishubungaku [‘mass’ literature]. . . . in the fact that Japanese ‘high culture’ is slowly being
eroded by the global market, leaving nothing actually ‘Japanese’ left” (6).
At a glance, Ōe’s claim appears accurate, for Murakami undeniably incorporates a
sizeable quantity of Western music (i.e. The Beatles) and literary references (e.g. F. Scott
Fitzgerald) into his works. To Ōe and other traditional authors, Murakami’s tendency to include
these and other Western allusions and influences in his work is antithetical to “pure” literature.
However, while many critics share Ōe’s views, the massive appeal of Norwegian Wood is
insufficient to label Murakami’s text purely “mass” literature.
Although Murakami admits to including Western material in his texts, he feels that he is
no less Japanese than his critics. When interviewed about this issue, Murakami replied, “I
certainly think of myself as being a Japanese writer. I write with a different style and maybe with
different materials, but I write in Japanese, and I'm writing for Japanese society and Japanese
people” (Gregory, et al 114). Despite claims to the contrary, Murakami’s works do not seek to
undermine Japanese culture or advocate a deliberate move away from Japanese literature.
Conversely, they are a product of Japan—his Japan—a Japan that has changed dramatically since
the end of World War II. Murakami’s texts are not antithetical to “pure” literature; they are a
redefining of it.
In an article entitled, “Purely Mass or Massively Pure? The Division Between ‘Pure’ and
‘Mass’ Literature,” Strecher investigates this problem and claims that it is one that stems from
the fact that “Japanese literary critics have approached their subject under the assumption that
not all literature is created equal. . . . only a select few are deemed worthy of the attention of the
established critics, while the rest is bequeathed to the ‘masses’” (357). Historically, this
distinction is not a new issue. Donald Keene writes that early Japanese literature (before the 17th
12
century) was aristocratic, for and to the courtesans. However, the seventeenth and eighteenth
centuries brought about the Japanese literary renaissance, the literature of which “described the
commoners and the world in which they lived” (Keene 51). Thus, the division between “pure”
and “mass” literature is steeped in two centuries of historical tradition. One of the reasons for the
critical distaste surrounding Murakami is that his book sold four million copies, mostly to a
younger demographic. This mass appeal to a younger audience does little to bolster his
reputation with his more traditionally minded peers and critics, who desire literature to be
available only to those with enough intellect to understand it. The I-novel, a first person
narrative text, is one of the most consistent devices employed by Murakami. This style is
considered to be part of the long literary tradition of “pure” literature. Strecher writes that the I-
novel “may be seen as an internally directed medium of expression” (“Purely” 367). Thus, it is
interesting to discover all of the criticism leveled at Murakami for his lack of Japanese-ness
when his foundational structure is one of historically “pure” literature, told from the vantage
point of Japanese characters.
While traditional writers lay no claim to Murakami’s texts due to Murakami’s use of
Western styles and inferences, they are hard pressed to label his work un-Japanese. Slocombe
goes on to write that “Murakami’s literary technique draws from American sources and utilized
postmodern devices, but it is still fundamentally concerned with Japan and Japan’s role in the
postmodern global society” (6). In other words, Murakami’s work directly addresses issues that
are “fundamentally” Japanese. Also taking up Murakami’s defense, Fuminobu Murakami writes
that “the serious topics raised by other modern Japanese writers are also dealt with in
Murakami’s fiction” (128). As an example, I propose reviewing the scene where Watanabe
portrays Naoko as a woodblock print. Keene writes that woodblock prints were generally for
13
courtesans during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries (43). Thus, subtle as it may appear,
culturally historical references do appear in this story. Watanabe’s knowledge of the woodblock
prints is a subtle hint that he (and Murakami) knows and respects traditions more than critics
would care to admit.
Murakami’s referencing of Western popular songs, subjects and themes does not push the
novel away from Japan; rather it underscores the changes that have occurred in Japan, in
Japanese society, displaying the influx of other cultures and marking specific references that
were culturally present and influential during the 1960s and 1970s. If anything, Norwegian
Wood is an honest appraisal of culture, rather than a deliberate shift from culture.
Methodology
From the above discussion, it is apparent that the scholarly work done on Murakami’s
texts, and specifically Norwegian Wood, is limited and slightly one-sided. For the purposes of
this thesis, I propose to apply a four-fold critical method to Norwegian Wood, using at least one
of these critical approaches to inform my reading of each scape. I believe that these four critical
approaches will help illuminate certain aspects of the text that have, to this point, been largely
overlooked. Specifically, I think that such a reading will illuminate a textual interpretation that
situates the novel within the context of particular cultural crises. The four forms of criticism that
I have chosen are ecocriticism, ecofeminism, urban ecocriticism and ecopsychology.
First of all, I want to perform an ecocritical and ecofeminist reading of Norwegian Wood.
As briefly discussed above, the frequency of landscape images and the uses to which they are put
should be analyzed in terms of a criticism made especially for dealing with natural landscapes.
Until recently, the ecology within texts has been largely ignored, remaining one aspect of
14
literature that has remained mostly uncriticized until the fairly recent development of eco-critical
tools. The ecocritical part of my reading is worthwhile because, as Patrick D. Murphy write,
“The term [ecocriticism] has come to summarize the response of literary study and analysis to
the ecological consciousness of the last two decades and to the recognition that human culture is
inextricably involved with, and ultimately subordinate to, the physical, natural world” (15).
Essentially, therefore, the goal of ecocriticism is to establish a relationship predicated on an
understanding of one’s place with and within a particular scape, specifically the landscape in this
case. This goal is important, especially as I am using these scapes as conduits through which the
characters attempt to negotiate their places in a post-war, postmodern society.
Ecocriticism, as seen through critics such as Murphy and Julia Adney Thomas, will
afford an interesting perspective on the relationships occurring between Naoko and the land,
Watanabe and the land, and Watanabe and Naoko. An ecocritical reading will help enlighten
some of the problems with these relationships, and also highlight some of the reasons for certain
textual nuances, such as the way in which the landscape functions for part of the story as an
ideal, and for the rest of the story as anathema. To what extent, if any, are the experiences and
actions of the human characters downplayed in favor of underscoring the importance of the
landscape and their relationship(s) to it?
To answer the above question, I want to move on to my intent to use ecofeminism in
conjunction with ecocriticism. I want to apply an ecofeminist lens from the perspective of such
ecofeminists as Karen J. Warren and Bronwyn Davies. The landscape in this text cannot be
adequately analyzed without addressing ecofeminist concerns. My ecofeminist approach will
directly examine the relationship between Naoko and the environment and Midori and the
environment. In what ways does landscape serve to marginalize? And who becomes the victim
15
of such marginalization? My exploration of this issue will prove that the landscape is used to
establish hierarchical power, rather than fulfilling relationships. While ecofeminism shares
similarities with ecocriticism, ecofeminism deals specifically with the relationship between
women and nature, a relationship that finds its grounding in images projected from the minds and
imaginations of men. Thus, rather than merely examining the effect of landscape with a human
inhabitant, ecofeminism seeks to highlight and eradicate the relationship between the oppression
of women and the oppression of nature. Karla Armbruster writes that it is “politically essential
to explore and emphasize these connections if the dominations of women and nature are to be
substantively challenged” (97).
Much of this reading will take place in the sanatorium, for that is where people and
nature are in the closest proximity to one another. Here, in this supposed utopia, I hope to
display the disparity that exists between men and women, and some ways in which the landscape
is utilized to heighten this inconsistency. I will specifically address the language and images
used to relegate women to a state of passiveness, using the landscape as a way of naturalizing
and, thus, marginalizing them. Performing this reading does not, in any way, detract from the
main goal of my thesis. In actuality, this reading heightens it because it gives us a new angle
from which to consider the negotiation of place. This new vantage point offers the possibility
that marginalization is, in and of itself, a tool to create (or recreate) and maintain an environment
that no longer exists, an environment common to pre-war Japan, but foreign to post-war Japan.
For the cityscape, I will use ecopsychology to determine the status of relationships
between urbanites and their surrounding environments. Technically, ecopsychology deals with
the interaction between the psyche and feelings of an individual and the particular landscape in
which that individual finds him/herself. Although ecopsychology was not created specifically to
16
deal with urban settings, as a tool that deals with the environment directly related to the psyche, I
foresee no problems in employing it to ascertain the mindsets of a population that is not only
enmeshed in postmodern culture, but is also far removed from natural landscapes. Using
ecopsychologists such as Andy Fisher, I am hoping to show the disillusionment and
disconnectedness that accompany a culture ruled by a capitalist market. If I can prove this
mindset, I will be able to refer back to ecocriticism and ecofeminism by displaying a culturally
unmet need for natural landscape. With this wedge, I want to highlight the psychological
considerations of the city as a hard and cold place, as a place of death and lack of forgiveness. I
am seeking not only to show the disparity between urban and rural but also the differences in the
actions and attitudes of urban characters.
In addition to this ecopsychological examination of the city, I will also utilize urban
ecocriticism. Michael Bennett and David W. Teague will help define this particular branch of
ecocriticism. This line of criticism appears more readily relevant to the topic at hand. Through
this means, I will suggest and discuss the idea of cityscape as wilderness, as further removed
form the natural due to misconceptions concerning the environment of wilderness. Essentially,
this critical tool will aid us by displaying an even larger wedge between the truly natural and the
perceived wild.
Not surprisingly, I will also use ecopsychology to critique the psychescape. Although I
will use the same critical means, I will do so from a different perspective, one that is perhaps less
scientific than the one I am using for the cityscape. To accomplish this goal, I will refer back to
Fisher, but also include criticism from Eugene Victor Walter. It is important to employ an
appropriate critical method for the psychescape since the narrator’s psyche is what connects all
the pieces together, no matter how imperfectly or tenuously. Ecopsychology will be useful
17
because I am treating the psychescape as an actual place. For obvious reasons, I hesitate to call it
a physical place, but I want to stress the fact that it is a place that is as real and valid and,
hopefully for the readers, as accessible as either of the other two scapes. Ecopsychology avails
us with an appropriate means by which we can grasp the psychological aspects of this scape, as
well as this scape’s orientation to the environments connected to it and contained within it.
Establishing the psychescape as a valid place will, I hope, illuminate new aspects of the
text. As a place, the psychescape is the final ground of combination and negotiation. At times,
the psychescape works to weld the other two scapes into one unit, a suitable place that takes what
is good from both other scapes and make it into one. At other times, the psychescape seeks to
bargain with both scapes and rationally determine one over the other. In yet another way, the
psychescape is its own holding tank, hosting memory and providing a final means of escape from
the failures of both other scapes. When the natural world withers and dies and the urban
wilderness becomes too chaotic and wild, Watanabe can turn inward to a world that he controls
absolutely. He can shut everything else out and live within the confines of his own mind.
18
CHAPTER TWO: LANDSCAPE AS NOSTALGIC, MARGINAL AND IDEAL
The landscape is Watanabe’s first attempt in Norwegian Wood at finding an escape
through a particular scape, and readers can view the landscape as the narrator’s attempt to
establish a place for himself. Often, we assign landscape to the category of mere setting,
relegating it to the capacity of physical locator. However, such an offhanded dismissal of
landscapes is both naïve and critically irresponsible. Indeed, landscape is one of the primary
informers in the text. In In(scribing) Body/Landscape Relations, Bronwyn Davies writes,
“Awareness of being embodied and, in particular, being embodied in relation to landscape, is
something we have little practice in observing or articulating” (14). In terms of characterization,
landscape deepens our understanding of character mood, emotion and mentality. Regarding
portrayals of women, landscape offers a revealing ecofeminist read that exhibits the exploitation
of women through naturalization, and the stakes involved in such a pursuit (i.e. cultural
normalcy). Neglecting to assess the uses of these landscapes adequately will result only in a
partial understanding on the part of the reader. Due to the prominent role that nature and
landscape hold in the text, our appreciation of the text is greatly dependent upon our
understanding of the landscape. Indeed, landscape in this text serves a larger function than that
of literary compass. Natural landscapes can be and are purposeful literary tools that function in
multiple roles, in this case, creating a place through nostalgia, marginalization, and idealism.
Using Haruki Murakami’s Norwegian Wood, I hope to reveal three of the many purposes
of natural landscapes in literature. In Reconfiguring Modernity: Concepts of Nature in Japanese
Political Ideology, Julia Adney Thomas assesses the uses to which the Japanese put landscape
when she writes, “As the critical distance between nature and Japanese literature was bridged, so
too was the critical distance between nature and Japanese culture in general. ‘Landscape’ both
19
actual and metaphoric became the site of national self-discovery” (171). In other words,
Japanese literature utilizes natural landscapes to define the “self.” This proposition holds true in
our current text. Watanabe’s use of landscape attempts to establish himself within a particular
context, one that he hopes will afford him some stability.
In a like manner, Walter writes that “experience is nourished by place, leads us to
recognize that we internalize the environment not only materially but also emotionally and
symbolically. . . . We absorb what Plato calls the pathemata, meaning the qualities and feelings
of places” (150). On one hand in Norwegian Wood, Watanabe seems always to take on the
character of the place he is in. For instance, at the Sanatorium, a place that inspires and requires
peace, cooperation and openness, Watanabe is open and honest, even to Reiko, a woman whom
he has just met. On the other hand, in the city, he is fairly reticent. He often refuses to answer
the class roll call, and when asked why he fails to respond, he says, “I just didn’t feel like it
today” (51). He makes this reply to Midori on the first day they meet, and she is intrigued by his
short, clipped answers that, to her, are reminiscent of Humphrey Bogart, “Cool. Tough.”
(Murakami 51). He replies that he is just like every other guy, but his curt answers and strange
manners (e.g. drinking coffee black) suggest otherwise.
In the following part of this chapter, I will demonstrate how Murakami employs
landscape as a tool that is neither random nor arbitrary. Rather, Murakami uses landscape to
provide a backdrop accenting and hosting Watanabe’s nostalgic feelings, identifying women,
especially Naoko, in terms of the natural in such a way as to marginalize them and remove them
from any position of power, and creating an ideal of sorts.
20
Nostalgia
From the very first page, a natural setting is the controlling factor. Indeed, the narrator
(whom we later learn is Toru Watanabe) saturates the opening with attention to the “Cold
November rains,” the “dense cloud cover,” the “dark clouds,” the “gloomy air of a Flemish
landscape,” “the North Sea,” and his seemingly indifferent declaration of, “So—Germany again”
(Murakami 3). If Watanabe pays so much attention to the landscape, it stands to reason that we
should give it ample consideration. Indeed, his observations paint a picture that informs the
reader about his emotional state. Although an individual might argue that the narration actually
begins on a plane, my reading finds that the narrator’s stresses lie not on the plane, but on the
many and varied depictions of the landscape outside the plane. Thus, in the beginning of the
text, nature serves to illuminate Watanabe’s mood and host his nostalgia.
At first glance, his narration tells us only that he is in Hamburg, Germany. Hence, the
landscape seems merely a locating device, a contrivance that marks his physical locale.
Although this information gives us a timeframe and place, the physical setting is not the
important factor. Rather, the landscape becomes an environment that reveals Watanabe’s frame
of mind. Like the “gloomy air of a Flemish landscape,” Watanabe is “kind of blue” (Murakami
3). His thoughts seem as dark as the “dense cloud cover” and as dreary as the “Cold November
rain” (Murakami 3). The use and repetition of this symbolism suggests that his detailed
depictions are more than simply the interested glances of a tourist, and his observations serve the
purpose of portraying his emotional and mental state. A closer examination of the natural setting
will illustrate this point more clearly.
His use of “dark cloud” imagery implies a dark mood. Additionally, the clouds’ position
over the North Sea signifies a breadth and vastness to Watanabe’s feelings. If we read further,
21
we find that the text supports such interpretation. As he contemplates the clouds over the North
Sea, he thinks about “what [he] had lost in the course of [his] life: times gone forever, friends
who had died or disappeared, feelings [he] would never know again” (Murakami, 3). Without
much difficulty, we infer that the sea functions as a well, a metaphorical holding tank for his
emotions. If we combine this imagery with the previously mentioned “dark cloud” imagery, we
create an impression of melancholy and depression. As further support of this reading, the
stewardess sees his expression and asks him two separate times if he is alright. Apparently,
another textual character sees the same troubled person as the reader sees. Hence, the attention
to this natural detail operates as more than a decorative filler. In his book Farther Afield in the
Study of Nature-Oriented Literature, Murphy specifically states that the scenes within “Love of
Mountains,” a Japanese story by Uno Koji, are often taken over by mountain scenery (129).
Norwegian Wood also tends towards this overarching landscape as the fundamental backdrop
and character piece within certain segments of the story. For example, although Watanabe only
spends three total days on his first visit to the sanatorium, this visit takes up seventy-six pages,
becoming one of the major settings for the story. Hence, the nostalgia inherent in landscape is a
vital part of the narrative.
Following this bleak description of the “Flemish landscape,” Watanabe waxes nostalgic,
and, for four sentences, he transports the reader and himself back to 1969:
The plane reached the gate. People began unlatching their seatbelts and pulling baggage
from the storage bins, and all the while I was in the meadow. I could smell the grass, feel
the wind on my face, hear the cries of the birds. Autumn 1969, and soon I would be
twenty. (Murakami 3)
Similar to his Hamburg description, Watanabe’s reminiscent depiction begins with details about
natural landscape, a landscape in which he deliberately positions himself. And it is not just any
22
landscape, but a “meadow,” a place of beauty, of quiet and of peace in which we find Watanabe.
A meadow is for grazing and growth, an area where animals come in order to feed, rest, and
play. And, here, in the midst of this secure environment is Watanabe.
While in the meadow, Watanabe is not alone. Grass, wind, and birdsong accompany
him. While the natural setting seems happy and peaceful, the relation of this “natural”
environment functions as more than a fanciful memory. In “The Vocabulary of Japanese
Aesthetics, I, II, III,” Wm. Theodore De Bary refers to this sense of nostalgia as “aware” (44).
De Bary writes, “an aware emotion was most often evoked in the poets by hearing the
melancholy calls of birds and beasts [. . .] Gradually [. . .] aware came to be tinged with sadness”
(44). Despite the fact that Watanabe is not a poet, we can safely infer that he identifies his
nostalgic mood, in some way, with nature, and this nostalgia partially establishes a starting place
form which the reader embarks upon the rest of the story
We are in a meadow eighteen year prior to the current time of our narrator’s life, and the
season is autumn. If we couple the season of “autumn” with his imminent birthday, we produce
a new and informative picture. After all, autumn is a season of change; the leaves change color,
and the temperature turns colder, marking the changes in the natural world. The birdsong and
the “wind on [his] face” bespeak childhood, innocence, a feeling of youth and vitality. But, he
will not be young forever. He is turning twenty, leaving his teenage years behind and coming of
age. Thus, autumn symbolizes the move towards maturity, the time when the child must grow
up and leave the meadow, must leave the safety and comfort of what is familiar. For nostalgic
reasons, however, the narrator is unwilling to do so. Essentially, the natural setting becomes a
medium for his nostalgia, a safe place for him to be nostalgic, to reminisce and bemoan lost parts
of his life.
23
Despite the eighteen years that have elapsed between this scene and the one in Hamburg,
Watanabe chooses this one natural setting as his focal point. Ignoring the people moving about
and preparing to exit the cabin, Watanabe remains riveted to his seat, lost in his nostalgia, in
remembrances accented by the natural landscape. Watanabe muses that during the time this
scene actually occurs, “Scenery was the last thing on my mind. Now, though, that meadow
scene is the first thing that comes back to me [. . .] all I’m left holding is a background, sheer
scenery, with no people up front” (4-5). By his admission, the scenery does become important.
In fact, it becomes “like a symbolic scene in a movie” (5). Storey writes that early on within the
narrative, the reader is “cued that this landscape has symbolic value” (122). Thus, the natural
setting that he does not, at first, find truly essential develops into the metaphorical crux of the
image, the symbolic environment that characterizes his emotional state and his nostalgia.
Shortly after this “meadow” scene, Watanabe continues nostalgic reflections by
mentioning a well that “lay precisely on the border where the meadow ended and the woods
began” (6). In this account, Watanabe’s well possesses a “frightening depth. It was deep beyond
measuring, and crammed full of darkness, as if all the world’s darknesses had been boiled down
to their ultimate destiny” (6). From this image, readers might infer that the well, like the North
Sea, symbolizes the depth of Watanabe’s pain. Although this argument has merit, I view it from
a different perspective. An incredibly deep, unmarked well out in the middle of a tranquil field
seems out of place. However, by juxtaposing these contradictory images, we illuminate the
possibility that, in the midst of the meadow’s peace and security, there resides a danger, a
vacuum, an unquenchable thirst or craving, the hole that tarnishes and eventually claims the
ideal. In the middle of this harmonious setting, a void exists. After further reading, I believe that
this well is tied inextricably not to Watanabe, but to Naoko, Watanabe’s love.
24
Watanabe links the well unquestionably with the natural. When first discussing its
existence, Watanabe writes, “the image of a thing [the well] that I had never laid eyes on became
inseparably fused to the actual scene of the field that lay before me” (6). For Watanabe, this
fusion is absolute. Indeed, his inability to picture the well outside the “scene that lay before”
him indicates an undeniable correlation between the well and the natural landscape. Therefore,
Watanabe’s joining of the two entities gives us grounds to establish the bond between the well
and the landscape. The well functions as a physical representation of Naoko’s suffering, making
it even more pronounced. For instance, the well could be seen as Naoko’s unquenchable need,
despite the apparent harmony and security afforded by the surroundings. After all, the well
resides in a beautiful place, in a place between the meadow and the forest. Such a setting should
inspire peace of mind rather than suffering and need. However, Naoko’s own words describe
herself are as follows: “I’m confused. Really confused. And it’s a lot deeper than you think.
Deeper. . .darker. . .colder” (8). In this quotation, Naoko characterizes herself with nearly the
same language that Watanabe uses to depict the well—in terms of depth and a confusion that
links directly to darkness. Thus, a fundamental shift occurs in which nature and nostalgia merge
and move the narrative forward in order to represent Naoko in even greater detail that that in
which they previously represented the narrator.
Although I am not suggesting that Naoko’s character is motivated by evil intentions, I
cannot escape the fact that she embodies danger to herself and to others. After all, she is
arguably the cause for Watanabe’s breakdown, as well as her own death. Like the well, she is
one whose depth is mysterious, frightening, and intriguing. She is the entity that Watanabe longs
to reach but cannot find— that, indeed, no one can find. Like the well, she has no visible
25
markers to follow, no wall or fence to indicate her whereabouts. In fact, Naoko possesses
nothing but “confusion,” pain, suffering, and some sort of fatal attractiveness.
Surprisingly, at one point, Watanabe says that he requires nearly a full minute to conjure
up an image of Naoko’s face, a face that he has seen many times. However, the well, which he
has never actually seen, is far clearer than her image, thus the ideal is inseparable from the blight
that claims it. With this in mind, we can infer that what Watanabe knew best (although I am not
claiming that he understood it) is the void in Naoko, her endless depth of confusion and
overbearing need—need that threatens to swallow him—need that eventually destroys her.
Sadly, it is a need that Watanabe cannot fill, despite his best efforts. He cannot give stability to
the ideal, even though Naoko is depending upon him to do so. Naoko says, “You’ll be O.K. You
could go running all around here in the middle of the night and you’d never fall into the well.
And as long as I stick with you, I won’t fall in either. . . .when I’m really close to you like this,
I’m not the least bit scared. Nothing dark or evil could ever tempt me” (Murakami 7). But, she
cannot stay with him. The ideal is a paradox because it depends on the fulfillment from its
subject, but it cannot coexist with the subject because once it does, it would cease to be an ideal.
An experienced ideal is a reality. Thus, we see the reasons for Naoko’s statement that “it’s
impossible” (Murakami 7), when Watanabe asks her to live with him.
Marginal
If we accept the well as a part of the natural landscape, we can also accept the fact that
Naoko’s self-descriptions in connection to the well serve to naturalize her. I read such
naturalizing as more than merely additional insights into character. My supposition is informed
by ecofeminist philosopher Warren who writes, “the exploitation of women is justified by
26
naturalizing them” (12). While naturalizing of Naoko does further enlighten our perceptions of
Naoko’s character, I believe that the natural landscape performs a separate, but equally important
function: that of working to establish Naoko not as a femme fatale (although that is arguable),
but as a marginalized woman.
By casting Naoko as a deep, dark, confused individual, Watanabe sets her up as a tragic
figure in need of help, hopefully his help. Later in the story, we see her attempting to get help by
going to the sanatorium. For now, however, it is enough to consider her, like the well, as
something needy—needing to be found, to be recognized, to be marked, to be filled—and
dangerous—in terms of a depth that is capable of engulfing herself and others. In reality, this
natural depiction of Naoko leaves her with no other option that to need someone else. She needs
someone to fulfill her wants and to keep her from the danger(s) she poses. Essentially, this
natural portrayal of Naoko places her in a position that requires the power of another, rather than
allowing her to assert her own autonomy and authority. Despite her best efforts, she cannot help
herself out of her predicament. Thus, these naturalized descriptions marginalize her into
positions of powerlessness where she waits for someone with power to help her.
Understandably, the needy person always resides in a less authoritative sphere than the one
needed.
Looking deeper into Murakami’s text, we gain an appreciation for just how often
Watanabe uses nature to depict and marginalize women. Emiko Ohnuki-Tierney writes,
The aesthetics of cherry blossoms has been extended to other ‘beautiful’ human beings
and things, including women. Like rice, women in agrarian cosmology represent both
productive and reproductive power, both of which were seen as beautiful in cosmological
terms [. . .] There is no doubt that cherry blossoms in full bloom are celebrated and
symbolically linked to women. (32, 9)
27
Although Norwegian Wood fails to give attention to rice, it does contain a poignant scene
involving cherry blossoms. In this scene, Watanabe watches the blooming of cherry blossoms
and bemoans their short-lived glory. While in this mindset, he casts the image of the blossoms
on Naoko, likening her frail beauty to that of the blossoms. I think the text supports the idea of
defining of women in “natural” terms. From an ecofeminist standpoint, it is necessary to find
such depictions and de-feminize them, to show that nature is a “feminine issue” (Warren 4), not a
feminine marker.
Although natural scenes grant the reader access to Watanabe’s feelings, Watanabe does
not directly compare himself to landscape. Landscape for Watanabe is an informant, not a
controlling or “othering” agent. On the one hand, landscape may help to represent him, but it
does not ultimately define his identity. On the other hand, however, Watanabe depicts Naoko as
part of the natural, and such a representation casts her into an inferior status. When he links
Naoko to nature, Watanabe is not stressing a “positive relationship with nature, a kinship
involving interdependence and mutual caretaking” (Howell 39). Rather, Watanabe identifies
Naoko with nature on the basis that “women and nature are connected by virtue of their
inferiority” (Howell 39-40). In other words, women and landscape are frontiers that need to be
dominated.
Taking the sanatorium as an example, we see that the patients are surrounded by trees,
flowers, wildlife, and mountains—all natural elements creating a virtually perfect natural
landscape. In these passages, however, there are virtually no men. At one point, Watanabe sees
a man in a white coat who, Reiko admits, is a doctor. Other than this man, however, we
encounter only five other men, two of whom are staff, one who is the guard or gatekeeper and
two of whom are “apparently sanatorium patients” (133). The use of “apparently” implies an
28
uncertainty. In truth, we never ascertain whether or not they are patients, only that they look like
patients. Thus, the only tenants of whom the reader is aware are women.
The above observations are more implications than anything else, but they help show a
distinction. The man in the coat is a doctor. He is there in a professional capacity, as is the
gatekeeper. Conversely, Reiko and Naoko, the two prominent women in the sanatorium, are
there as patients, while at least three of the five men we meet are in positions of power. These
nameless men are in charge of the natural landscape and the women who reside within it. Hence,
the sanatorium illustrates a natural setting that women need, an environment that identifies them,
an environment that men control. Ironically, we never learn the names of any of the men. I say
ironic because nameless individuals most often characterize a marginalized and underrepresented
group. In this case, however, it is noteworthy that these men, even without names, are in
positions of authority over the women who possess names.
While visiting Naoko at the sanatorium, Watanabe writes that Naoko looks like “a pale,
distant scene [. . .] She looked like one of the beautiful little girls you see in woodblock prints
from the middle ages [. . .] [her] barrette was shaped like a butterfly” (Murakami 103). Although
these images are not overly specific, they do serve to tie Naoko directly to the natural
environment. By comparing her to “a pale, distant scene,” Watanabe depicts Naoko as setting,
as background. Perhaps this scene displays the fact that she is the natural setting that Watanabe
desires. Even if it does not, however, the words “pale” and “distant” suggest an outdoor setting,
if not a natural environment, almost as if Naoko is part of a panoramic photograph. Gretchen T.
Legler writes that “ranking [women] ‘closer to nature’ or . . . declaring their practices ‘natural’ or
‘unnatural’” continues to oppress of women and reaffirm the masculine hierarchy (228).
29
When Watanabe compares Naoko to “woodprint blocks from the middle ages” he does
not place her on canvas or paper or glass, but on “wood,” a natural element, coming originally
from a natural landscape. What is particularly interesting about this passage is the contrast
between “little girls” and “middle ages.” Using both sides of this paradigm simultaneously,
Watanabe invests Naoko with the two-fold character of nature—old and young. Although nature
carries the weight of many millennia, it still appears young because of its ability to renew itself.
Thus, we have a depiction of Naoko having the regenerative and reproductive qualities of nature,
the natural mothering qualities, in other words. Regarding these qualities, Ohnuki-Tierney
equates “women’s reproductive power with the productive power of rice” (32). Although
Ohnuki-Tierney concerns herself specifically with rice, I maintain that her comparison implies
an overarching ideology that supports the fact that women’s reproductive capabilities are
attached to nature. Barbara Sato echoes this concern by acknowledging that, traditionally,
Japanese women were “assigned specific gender roles as wives and mothers” (16).
In the last part of the above description, Watanabe associates her barrette with a
“butterfly.” Once more, we see the connection between Naoko and the natural. Piecing this
picture together, I visualize Naoko standing in the distance of a natural scene with a forest in the
background and butterflies around her head. Referring to a dream he had in Naoko’s apartment
at the sanatorium, Watanabe states, “I dreamed of a butterfly dancing in the half-light”
(Murakami 104). Watanabe talks of falling asleep in her apartment where he is surrounded by
her things, thinking of her. In fact, he fixes his concentration on Naoko through her possessions.
“In the kitchen were the dishes Naoko ate from, in the bathroom was the toothbrush Naoko used,
and in the bedroom was the bed in which Naoko slept” (Murakami 104). There is enough
evidence to suggest that this dream “butterfly” references Naoko.
30
Still further into this scene at the sanatorium, both Reiko and Naoko identify themselves
with nature. In talking about music, Reiko says, “It makes me feel like I’m in a big meadow in a
soft rain” (Murakami 108). Although my argument does not center on the arousal of feelings
through music, it is significant that Reiko puts herself in a natural setting. She is not sitting in a
house, staring out a window, and looking at the soft rain. She is in the center of a natural
landscape, in a meadow, and it is “soft” and inviting, much like the ideal woman should be.
Similarly, if somewhat more darkly, Naoko says that the song “Norwegian Wood” makes
her feel as though she were “wandering in a deep wood. I’m all alone and it’s cold and dark, and
nobody comes to save me” (Murakami 109). Although Naoko’s description is more threatening
than Reiko’s, she still places herself in the context of a natural setting, when she could just as
easily have been lost in a city. And, she still needs someone to “save” her. Like the butterfly,
she is small and fragile, and she requires help to find her way out. Again, she is powerless to
help herself. She needs a guide, a woodsman—someone who can fell “Virgin timber” in the
attempt to find her (Warren 12).
Shortly after these initial self-marginalizing portrayals, Watanabe takes a good look at
Naoko’s maturing beauty and writes, “Her eyes were the same deep, clear pools they had always
been” (Murakami 109). Here, her eyes are “pools,” and I think that we can reasonably infer that
Watanabe is not alluding to swimming pools, but rather to lagoon-like pools, clear pools of
natural water. Throughout the text, Watanabe makes these seemingly innocent references that tie
Naoko (or some part of her) and, to a lesser degree, Reiko to nature.
In another instance, Watanabe awakes to find Naoko at the foot of his couch and
compares her posture to that of being “frozen in place, like a small nocturnal animal that had
been lured out by the moonlight” (Murakami 130). In this description, Naoko is “small,” fragile,
31
animal-like. Following that animal-like imagery, Watanabe writes that Naoko “slipped the gown
from her shoulders and threw it off completely like an insect shedding its skin” (131). Again, we
have another portrayal of Naoko as “other,” as less than human, as an animal, as a piece of the
natural in a natural setting. As Naoko leaves his bedside, Watanabe writes, “I could see her pale
blue gown flash in the darkness like a fish” (Murakami 163). Like the “butterfly barrette,” her
attire is likened to the natural. From her eyes to her hair, and from her body to her outfit, Naoko
represents the natural. Although Watanabe also compares Naoko to “newborn flesh” (Murakami
131), the term “flesh” is non-specific, designating neither human nor animal. However, since
this depiction follows closely behind the image of the molting insect, it is not unreasonable to
make a connection between the “flesh” and the “insect.” Yet, even if this connection is strained,
the idea of “newborn flesh” reiterates the idea of the woman as a part of the natural process of
birth and regeneration. In still another instance, Watanabe receives a letter from Naoko; and
when he reads it, he is in his dormitory, surrounded by the “filth . . . the floors . . .littered with
ramen wrappers and empty beer cans and lids from one thing or another” (Murakami 14).
However, all of these images magically disappear when he begins to read Naoko’s letter. At this
point, the dormitory is filled with the sound of “the pigeons cooing in a nearby roost” and the
breeze stirring the curtains (Murakami 85), rather than by Storm Trooper’s calisthenics or jokes
about Storm Trooper’s canal picture. Even for the short while that Watanabe’s narrative
includes Naoko within the boundaries of the city, she is always walking, moving away from the
city and toward the natural. In addition, Reiko also takes on an animal persona when Watanabe
writes that she “sniffed the breeze like a dog” (Murakami 148). Warren writes, “Animalizing or
naturalizing women in a (patriarchal) culture where animals are seen as inferior to humans (men)
thereby reinforces and authorizes women’s inferior status” (12).
32
After considering the evidence, there is little room to doubt that the status of women is at
stake in this text. By continually naturalizing women (and, subsequently, feminizing landscape),
Watanabe creates a dichotomy and perpetuates a duality in which man, the ruler, subjugator, and
lord of nature, exploits both women and the natural, setting himself in a superior position. If
women are a part of man’s natural realm or at least can be described in terms of that natural
world, man has no difficulty exerting control and dominance over them. Traditionally, men and
women in Japan grow up accepting the “superior status of men, and the inferior status of
women” (Iwao 19). And, the natural depictions of women in the text further promote this
hierarchical ideology. After all, the natural depictions of Naoko designate her as small, frozen,
confused, and animal-like. Through such sexist portrayals, it is not surprising that the natural
needs man and that the woman, in her weak, confused, and natural state, needs the helpful
dominance of the masculine hand. In fact, nearly every time there is a scene with nature in it,
Watanabe’s thoughts begin to wander towards Naoko. Likewise, whenever he sees Naoko,
images and descriptions of nature abound.
But what is at stake in these marginalizations? Why is marginalization important to an
argument that proposes to discuss aspects of place? The marginalization occurs specifically
because Reiko and Naoko are threats to an established (or at least desired) normative culture.
Although their “insanity” already places them on the margin, I think that Watanabe pushes the
issue further. My contention is that their initial, self-marginalization is problematic because of
what it entails for these characters. First of all, we must remember that both Naoko and Reiko
are at Ami Lodge by choice. Thus, their marginalized position becomes one that can quickly be
changed or subverted by the choice to leave. In addition, their choices to marginalize themselves
have cut them off from mainstream society, so that they are physically, geographically, and
33
philosophically removed from cultural critique. Despite the tendency of society to marginalize
certain individuals, society wants to keep these individuals on a fringe that society controls,
rather than on one that the marginalized individuals have created for themselves. Having
someone on the fringe and out of sight is dangerous. Lastly, we must examine the results of their
self-imposed marginalization.
Recalling the story that Reiko relates to Watanabe, we see that Reiko was a promising
concert pianist. However, a nervous breakdown ruins her prospects, and she resigns herself to
teaching piano as an alternative. During her teaching sessions, one of her male students asks her
to marry him. After overcoming her initial reservations, she accepts his proposal. However, a
few years later, she has a recurring bout with insanity brought on by an unsolicited lesbian
experience with a student. This event causes her to lose her grip on reality once again. Despite
the assurances of her husband that things would grow steadily better, she fails to find solace or a
cure and commits herself to the sanatorium. This background displays what was lost in Reiko’s
self-marginalization—namely, a family. Japanese women are supposed to have a family,
supposed to be there to raise the children and take care of the household while the man is at
work. Concerning the familial duties of a Japanese woman, Sumiko Iwao writes:
Thirty years ago [the early 1960s judging by when this book was copyrighted], a young
woman was expected to marry between 20 and 24, and those still single at 25 were often
pitied or disparaged as urenokori (unsold merchandise) or to ga tatsu (overripe fruit).
Perhaps the main reason was because, for that generation of women (now in their fifties),
marriage was a must. It was the source of economic power. . . . Women who do not
marry were sometimes thought to be cold and unattractive. (59-60)
In a later chapter, Iwao notes that the woman’s role in the family “centers on motherhood” (125).
In leaving her husband and her daughter, Reiko subverts this cultural normative and resigns
herself to a life within the sanatorium. Here, she admits that “it’s hard to tell anymore whether
34
I’m patient or staff” (Murakami 95). In this community, she is respected and privileged beyond
many of the occupants, but without the pressures that society would place upon her by asking her
to perform to and by a certain set of standards. Thus, Reiko is threatening to the system because
she is an un-manned woman. She has chosen a life for herself, apart from her husband and
family; she has shirked her social obligations and now lives a life of relative peace and stability
on her own as an advisor of sorts. Her life is represented as stronger without a man than with
one, and that representation is threatening to a patriarchal society.
Similarly, Naoko also poses the problem of the un-manned woman. Since the death of
her childhood love Kizuki, Naoko has given her affection to no man. Her one night of
intercourse with Watanabe was strained at best. And, since then, she has remained aloof and
impenetrable, both mentally and sexually. Although she does help Watanabe masturbate on one
occasion, she never again allows herself to be penetrated. Like Reiko, she too has chosen her lot
with the sanatorium, a place separate from the “global village” (Murphy 13), a place that
Watanabe can come to and visit but in which he cannot remain because he is not a part of their
culture, a member of the insane. Therefore, access to Naoko is now upon her terms and
conditions. Storey writes the following:
The last thing [Naoko] wants is to rely on a man. The lyrics of the title song are relevant
here. The man who sings the song wakes up after a night of romance to discover that his
girlfriend is gone: “This bird had flown. . .” Naoko is the bird who has flown away from
her suitor. Toru even has a dream where she turns into a mechanical bird, perhaps too
literally interpreting the image of the “bird,” that is also a pun on the 1960s British slang
for “girl.” Nonetheless, this image of the bird in flight inevitably suggests natural,
unbounded freedom. (153)
Essentially, the self-guided actions of Reiko and Naoko serve to place them in positions
that no longer require the involvement of men. They fit well with Sato’s definition of the
Japanese “new woman” which is “a woman who transgressed social boundaries and questioned
35
her dependence on men” (13). Although Sato’s analysis concerns women of the Modern era
(e.g. the 1920s), the applicability of her claim is relevant within this postmodern setting as well
because both of these women are “guilty” of having crossed an established line and of having
forsaken their need for men.
Without men, they achieve at least some of the “unbounded freedom” that they seek.
This position places them in a threatening position, one that Watanabe feels that he must address.
In terms of scapes, Watanabe is using all of the tools at his disposal to create a world that is
comfortably inhabitable. Watanabe’s further marginalization of Reiko and Naoko serves to re-
establish the boundaries that they have, with partial success, escaped. In other words, Watanabe
is creating his own place, a place removed from the chaotic and shallow world of city life, but
one that also, in his mind at least, conforms to some of the standards of which he approves.
Keeping them on the margin made of his own terms maintains a dying cultural ideal or status
quo. He needs this status quo because Reiko’s and Naoko’s lack of dependence on men poses “a
threat to gender relations” (Sato 13). As I touched on previously, Naoko has only one sexual
scene with Naoko, and it is not altogether successful. In a way, she is almost too passive,
especially when we consider the fact that Watanabe sleeps with her due to his inability to silence
her crying in any other way. Carol Bigwood writes, “The female’s supposed passive sexual
receiving of the male has been consistently viewed by western culture as inferior to the male’s
penetration and seeming overcoming the other” (126). Thus, cultural normatives require that
Watanabe truly subdue her, penetrate her in some other way, at some other point in time. With
sexual penetration no longer an option, Watanabe attempts to make his penetration cultural, to
penetrate the empowered lifestyle that Naoko has acquired. Thus, in marginalizing her,
36
Watanabe accomplishes the penetration denied to him, reasserts his masculine authority, and
reestablishes a semblance of cultural normalcy.
Ideal
Watanabe’s stressing of landscape so early on in the story instantly establishes the
landscape as an important place. There is something truly touching and profound, pristine
almost to a primordial state, in Watanabe’s depiction of the day in the meadow. The language he
uses is poetic, much more so than in his descriptions of the other scapes. Although we cannot be
certain at this point, these early portrayals lead us to believe that there is something idealistic
about the landscape. The ideal quality of the landscape is more firmly established when
Watanabe begins telling us of his journey to Ami Lodge. Here, there is a definite emphasis on
the sanatorium’s “separateness from civilization” (Storey 146). Watanabe stresses the
inaccessibility of this Lodge, I believe, specifically to prove its idealistic qualities. After all, an
ideal must be inaccessible because an ideal with open access is no longer an ideal, but a reality.
One night at the sanatorium, Naoko appears at his bed, rousing him from sleep. While he
had been asleep, he dreamed of birds and willow trees, and after Naoko’s presence awakened
him, he continued to believe his dream was continuing, thus exhibiting two ideas. One is that
Naoko’s attachment to the natural is so strong as to elicit nature dreams from Watanabe. The
other is that like the ideal, Naoko and the landscape only exist as a dream. At another point,
Watanabe writes that “there was something natural and serene about the way she had slimmed
down” (Murakami 19). Why “natural” about the way she slimmed down? Why not pleasing, or
beautiful, etc.? This section of the passage further indicates the idea of climaxed beauty, the
possibility that beauty and the natural or beauty and the landscape are interchangeable.
37
Watanabe finds something pristine and fulfilling about nature because he is coming from the
urban setting of Tokyo with its subways, taxis, diners, bars, coffeehouses and altogether cramped
and crowded atmosphere. As a scape, the landscape appears fairly perfect, utopian even. Storey
writes that there is a direct juxtaposition between the city and the landscape. In her words, “Ami
Lodge and downtown Tokyo coexist but never intersect” (131).
Unquestionably, there is a direct distinction between the landscape and cityscape, one
that bears examining. The novel displays a deliberate refusal to acknowledge intersection in
order to maintain the idealism of the landscape. In an early scene within the text, Watanabe
writes, “We had left the train at Yotsuya and were walking along the embankment by the station.
. . . The cherry trees’ brilliant green leaves stirred in the air and splashed sunlight in all
directions” (Murakami 18). Watanabe seems to make a point of contrasting the landscape and
the urban. They had to leave the city behind in order to reach the landscape, thus further
attempting to establish a true ideal. By stressing the word true, I am suggesting that a true ideal
is (far) removed from the real. Normally, an ideal arises out of situation that begs improving, that
is far from ideal. But the question still remains: why would Watanabe go out of his way to
establish landscape as an ideal?
I believe Murakami uses Watanabe to stress this division. This lack of intersection
brings us to a revelation: the landscape and cityscape are separate worlds or scapes if you will.
However, it also raises a question: What is the purpose behind this distinction? Why can there
be no intersection? I believe that the stressing of this idea serves the purpose of offering the
narrator and, consequently, the reader something more, a new scape, a different place to be, to
enjoy, to negotiate one’s own sense of place. Most of the time, Watanabe is not so much blind to
the lack of nature around him, as much as he simply chooses not to see it. Therefore, what
38
begins as an apparent inability to intersect actually ends up being the refusal to allow intersection
because the two worlds must remain apart. As I mentioned briefly above, the ideal must remain
apart from the physical world, or it ceases to be an ideal. The landscape then is the removed
ideal, the sequestered paragon whose separateness is necessary for its survival, and for the
survival of its inhabitants.
In order for the landscape to assure its own preservation, it must remain in a place that is
difficult for urban development to touch. Additionally, the landscape’s separateness allows its
inhabitants and travelers to reassess themselves and their positions within the other scapes. The
landscape functions as a healing agent, a “religious ritual meant to heal our wounded spirits”
(Murakami 27). At the same time, “The peaceful, utopian existence makes Naoko wonder if
this shouldn’t be how things are normally. But she quickly comes to understand that this
paradise can only exist in isolation, like the self-enclosed childhood paradise she shared with
Kizuki” (Storey 149). This idea of paradise is both a biblical and Buddhist philosophy, as is the
connection between paradise and the natural world. Regardless of which interpretation the
reader prefers, however, there is sufficient evidence to support the claim that the landscape
functions as a place set apart, as an idyllic utopia.
Watanabe’s endeavor to construct this scape as utopian is indicative of the change in
Japanese culture and society. For instance, he portrays Ami Lodge as a haven, an escape from
the pressures of the postmodern world. It is worth noting how far removed Ami Lodge is in
reference to what we might label civilization. In order to get there, Watanabe must take two
trains, an initial bus to make it to another bus that would take more than an hour to reach its final
stop, and then a twenty minute walk after the bus could go no further. Even Watanabe
comments, “[Ami Lodge] turned out to be much farther into the mountains than I had imagined”
39
(Murakami 90). All of this tells us that Ami Lodge has removed itself from civilization
purposefully. In order to effect a true separation, it has gotten as far away as it could. Ami
Lodge had to go out of its way to avoid intersection with the city. I believe that such measures
had to be taken because the city was on the rise, because cities were growing faster and faster,
and subsequently, rural areas were being depleted and consumed. At Ami Lodge, however, the
inhabitants can “live an idyllic life which harkens back to the agrarian roots of Japanese society”
(Storey 148). In post-war Japan, Japanese society had come far from these “agrarian roots” and
must go even “farther than I imagined” to regain them. Essentially, the rural cannot intersect
with the urban. Any intersection must inevitably lead to the consumption of one or the other.
The landscape, however, fails and necessarily so, for it must fail in order to be an ideal at
all. I make this claim in regards to the Japanese perception of the ideal and of beauty. Donald
Keene refers to this issue as “perishability” and outlines this idea when he discusses how the
Japanese expect and cherish perishability in regards to beauty. Keene writes that the Japanese
believe that “perishability is a necessary element in beauty” (24). He goes on to say that this
belief “does not of course mean that they have been insensitive to the poignance of the passage
of time. Far from it. Whatever the subject matter of the old poems, the underlying meaning was
often an expression of grief over the fragility of beauty and love. Yet the Japanese were keenly
aware that without this mortality there could be no beauty” (Keene 24).
Like nature and the rural world succumbing to industrialism and capitalist consumerism,
and like the cherry blossom whose beauty is great but short-lived, Naoko is the embodiment of
the Japanese landscape, and thus of their version of beauty: perishable. Watanabe’s comparison
of her life and death to that of a cherry blossom is especially applicable in regards to Keene’s
assessment because Keene continues by writing the following:
40
Their favorite flower is of course the cherry blossom, precisely because the period of
blossoming is so poignantly brief and the danger that the flowers may scatter even before
one has properly seen them is so terribly great. . . . The samurai was traditionally
compared to the cherry blossoms, and his ideal was to drop dramatically, at the height of
his strength and beauty, rather than to become an old soldier gradually fading away.
(Keene 24)
I am not suggesting that Naoko is either a man or a samurai; rather, I am proposing that she is an
embodiment of the Japanese idealism of beauty. Like the samurai, and like the cherry blossom,
her beauty is great but brief, the former intensified by the latter.
Unlike the blossoms, however, a part of Naoko’s beauty survives because she asks
Watanabe to remember her forever. In such a way, her beauty is preserved, given longevity far
surpassing her actual lifespan. With this danger averted, Naoko need no longer concern herself
with falling apart “before one has properly seen” her. Although she runs that risk throughout the
novel, the novel itself serves as a device to prevent that scattering from occurring before the
reader and the narrator can continually reassess and re-appreciate her. Yet, only in this way can
beauty be preserved. Beauty and idealism have access to longevity only through the deliberate
memory of the viewer. All other beauty must, inevitably, fail.
One point that is poignant and worth mentioning here is the idea of maturation. In order
for a blossom to bloom and become beautiful, it must mature. Throughout the novel, Watanabe
makes comments concerning the “natural” or beautiful way Naoko’s body has matured. In the
beginning of the story, we see Watanabe and Naoko celebrating her twentieth birthday, a
birthday denoting a major shift between childhood and adulthood. Storey writes:
In Japan, this is an especially significant birthday because it officially marks a young
person’s entry into adulthood. . . . This birthday celebration draws attention to the fact
that Naoko is situated in that transitional period between childhood and adulthood. These
changes are not especially welcome to her, however. “‘It seems so idiotic (baka), turning
twenty,’ said Naoko. ‘I didn’t even prepare myself. It makes me feel strange. It’s like
41
someone’s pushed me into this from behind.’” (I/69;73) This statement is the first hint of
her deep reluctance to embrace the world of adulthood. (144)
This statement also signifies a diminishing of her life expectancy because her person and beauty
have matured. Like the cherry blossom, Naoko has reached maturity, at least in terms of cultural
perspectives. At this crossroad, she has two options: grow up; or die. Her desire not to progress
is impractical.
Keene’s comments also offer another vantage point from which the reader may view
Watanabe’s paradoxical nature. Although Keene’s assessment states that the Japanese were
sensitive to the sadness of the loss of beauty, Watanabe’s emotional reaction goes far beyond
mere sensitivity, crossing into the realms of bitterness. In fact, in his comparison of Naoko to the
cherry blossom, he is not appreciative or nostalgic, but angry and resentful. Life, not beauty is
his primary concern. Landscape has been tainted by death. Its idealism has failed, and now
offers no more escape than the city. In fact, at this point, landscape becomes an undesired,
intrusive entity. While contemplating the cherry blossoms and cursing nature for its unfair
cruelty, Watanabe says, “I went inside and closed my curtains, but even indoors there was no
escape from the smell of spring. It filled everything from the ground up. But the only thing the
smell brought to mind for me now was that putrefying stench” (Murakami 247). Without the
ideal, the scape loses its purpose and shifts from nostalgia to painful remembrances, and even to
disdain. Additionally, Naoko’s death has inverted the object/subject dynamic. By taking her
own life, Naoko used what little power she had. Now, as Watanabe’s muse, she has the upper
hand because he must keep his promise, despite the fact that he never got what he wanted from
her: penetration and domination.
42
In addition, this loss of ideal is closely related to the story of the well, since the well
performs a narrower function than merely characterizing Naoko. Alongside that task, it also
functions as the antithesis to the ideal, to Naoko herself. Carrying this reading a bit farther, I
contend that the well is Naoko and vice versa. First, she describes herself in the same words and
ideas with which Watanabe portrays the well. Second, the mysterious aura surrounding Naoko
makes her unavailable to the reader and to Watanabe, just as a real picture of the well is never
apparent; the well presents a similar mystery because its location is unknown. Watanabe tells us
that “no one knows where it is” (Murakami 6). When Watanabe asks if people ever fall in and
die, Naoko says, “They do, every once in a while” (Murakami 6). Thus, there is a strong
correlation between Naoko and the well. However, even if she is a personification of the well,
she is still a pitiable figure, a figure toward whom Watanabe feels strongly and about whom he
regrets his mistakes.
Therefore, Watanabe’s questioning of such fragility presents a cultural question, a
question testing the confines of traditional Japan and traditionally held ideologies. Storey writes
that “the narrator’s view of Naoko is always informed by his sexual attraction to her. The long,
narrow space where Naoko had discreetly hidden herself is her constricted, secret world of
insanity and her body reflects this influence. However, Toru finds the result beautiful and
appealing” (142). Although there are times when Watanabe’s fascination with Naoko leads the
reader assume a level of sexual attraction, I believe that sexual attraction is not his primary focus
or her primary appeal. Sex with Naoko may be a fantasy, but I doubt that it is powerful enough
to comprise an ideal. For example, there is that scene when she comes before Watanabe naked.
He is so impressed by her beauty that he feels no sexual desire for her. In the one sexual episode
he has with her, Watanabe is detached, almost as if watching it clinically from another place. In
43
fact, his having intercourse with her seems due, in part, to the fact that he can think of no other
way to stop her from crying. Watanabe writes:
Supporting her weight with my left arm, I used my right hand to caress her soft straight
hair. And I waited. In that position, I waited for Naoko to stop crying. And I went on
waiting. But Naoko’s crying never stopped. I slept with Naoko that night. Was it the
right thing to do? That I cannot tell. Even now, almost twenty years later, I can’t be
sure. I guess I’ll never know. But at the time, it was all I could do. She was in a
heightened state of tension and confusion, and she made it clear that she wanted me to
giver her release. (39)
He admits that it’s “all [he] could do.” In addition, he comes very close to blaming the episode
on her, claiming that she (in what way we are still unsure) gave him some sort of understood
symbol for release, which he interpreted to mean sex. I think that Watanabe’s attraction to
Naoko is far more than sexual. I think it is a combination of the fact that he views her in such a
natural state, along with the fact that in this natural state, she is both is muse and his ideal.
Thus, we see the first failed scape, the natural scape. Coupling this failed scape with
Watanabe’s questioning bitterness, allows us to see the change in culture, the shift in value. The
agrarian roots are gone, replaced by capitalism and consumer fetish. Watanabe’s sarcastic
questioning represents his desire to hold onto this ideal, to bring back a piece of the past, to
escape what Murphy calls the “the daily violence of the contemporary global village” (13).
Watanabe’s desires are representative of an overall desire of the Japanese people. In an
interview, Murakami claims that one of the reasons for the overwhelming popularity of
Norwegian Wood is that “Japanese readers still yearn for that kind of world where there could be
idealism” (Gregory, et al 116). But yearning for and receiving are two different and often
incompatible things, as is the case for Watanabe and his failed projection of an ideal onto Naoko
and the landscape. In the end, the landscape is incapable of satisfying the ambitious designs of
44
its narrator, leading him to create yet another scape, another negotiation if you will. This next
scape is the cityscape.
45
CHAPTER THREE: CITYSCAPE—TALKING ABOUT TAMPONS
The second scape I want to examine is the cityscape. The cityscape is where Watanabe
lives, where he resides physically, if not always mentally. Not surprisingly, Murakami parallels
his observations of the landscape with the cityscape by embodying this scape in the lives of two
people: Midori and Nagasawa. Although Watanabe mentions other people within the cityscape,
these are the two characters with whom he most frequently interacts. First, however, I want to
establish Murakami’s use of the cityscape as critically applicable.
In the Introduction, I mentioned that Murakami draws textual themes from his own
experiences. While this is no less true concerning his viewpoints of the postmodern Japanese
city, his material for depictions of his cityscape is also a product of the Western literary tradition
from which he draws some of his themes, most notably F. Scott Fitzgerald (Miyawaki 275). By
linking Murakami’s text to Fitzgerald’s Gatsby which Murakami has translated, we can establish
cityscape as a critically noted and critically addressed theme. In an essay comparing Fitzgerald
to Murakami, Toshifumi Miyawaki notes that the cityscape is one of the key elements in
Murakami’s fiction:
What Murakami has been trying to write about is how to live in a thriving, active,
capitalist city like Tokyo. . . . Living, surviving and thriving in a big city . . . is also a
central concern for contemporary Japanese living in big cities. . . . This theme of young
people living in the city in contemporary Japan is clearly seen in Murakami’s Norwegian
Wood (1987). (272)
This quotation sheds light upon my premise, that of surviving, of determining placement within a
scape, in this case the cityscape. For the characters in Norwegian Wood, finding such placement
is difficult for reasons directly connected to the era of growth and change in the Japanese cultural
and economic systems. Miyawaki writes, “Despite being deeply lost in the city, Murakami’s
46
protagonist puts up with it and tries to survive, fighting against the oppression of modern
civilization” (274-75). Strecher writes that Murakami “continues to point not only to the irony of
the isolated individual in a city of over twenty million inhabitants, but also to the powerful and
invasive force of the postmodern, late-capitalist consumerist State into the lives of ordinary
people” (“Beyond” 362). Thus, the cityscape requires Murakami’s characters to negotiate their
lives amidst an “invasive” and oppressive distraction manifested in the form of the State.
I appreciate Strecher’s making note of the paradox that exists between a crowded
atmosphere and isolation. Without the existence of such a paradox, the characters’ meandering
disillusionment and overwhelming sense of displacement seems trivial at best, and fabricated at
worst. However, the existence of this particular duality confirms the possibility of isolation in a
scape inhabited by so many others who are possibly experiencing the same feelings of
disconnectedness. In fact, this isolation within the masses may be directly related to the size of
the population. Within a group of this magnitude, the individual is just another face, lost within
a crowd, forced to fend for him/herself. In other words, “Tokyo is presented as a façade of
sanity, masking the turmoil and despair of the postmodern age that lurk beneath the surface”
(Strecher 369). In addition to that part of Strecher’s claim, he also makes a valid point
concerning the “invasive force” of consumerism and capitalism. In other words, Strecher
provides an effect—the isolation of the individual—and then supplies the causes—“late-
capitalist consumerist State.” The above criticisms provide ample proof of the prevalence and
importance of the cityscape in Norwegian Wood.
As stated previously, the cityscape is in direct opposition or juxtaposition to the
landscape. But, this separation is more than geographical. It is also philosophical. Whereas the
landscape produces life, healing, food, etc., the cityscape consumes; and it consumes not only
47
material and land, but spirit as well. The production of the cityscape is only commodity,
consumer goods, which is the cause for the displacement of people living in the city, the waning
of the spirit of the text’s characters. In the scenes where Naoko and Watanabe are walking, they
traverse embankments that are surrounded by train stations. Within the urban community, there
is little landscape available, and what nature exists resides within close proximity to the
synthetic. As the capitalism continues its progressive movement, it swallows up the landscape
around it. Murphy writes that “the traditional ways of life of the farming and fishing
communities . . . have been almost completely extinguished by Japanese modernization,
particularly after World War II” (155). The results of this abandonment of agrarian society
because of societal progression are evidenced clearly when Midori is drunk and wants to climb a
tree. Watanabe observes that “unfortunately there were no climbable trees in Shinjuku, and the
Shinjuku Imperial Gardens were closing” (Murakami 172). This passage identifies two cultural
ideas. First of all, it shows the lack of landscape within the cityscape, the fact that the city has
opted to separate itself from the natural, decorating with only what was aesthetically pleasing,
rather than with what was natural to that place. Secondly, the one patch of nature within this
cityscape is an “Imperial Garden.” This nominalization designates ownership, possession of the
natural by the cityscape. Therefore, the cityscape reduces the natural to a commodity that can be
opened and closed at the whim of the State.
Unlike the landscape, the cityscape is not an escape. There is little to no nostalgia within
the borders of the urban environment. Actually, just the opposite is usually true. Watanabe
spends much of his time in the cityscape wishing for and dreaming about the landscape.
However, the cityscape is a scape in Murphy’s definition meaning “a viewpoint of where the
world stands in relation to human beings” (13). In other words, it is relationally dependent. In
48
order to understand it fully, we must ascertain what relationship exists between the characters in
the story and the city itself. Contrary to the peaceful atmosphere of the landscape, the cityscape
is a splash of cold water, a harsh and abrupt reality whose pace is set by factors beyond the
control of individuals.
One of the key differences is the aspect of food. Between the landscape and cityscape,
food is a distinguishing factor. Food plays an important aspect of the cityscape. When
Watanabe is in the landscape, he rarely mentions food. On his month-long journey across the
Japanese countryside, he claims that he survived on a diet of “whiskey, bread and water”
(Murakami 273). In the cityscape, however, he is continually in bars, restaurants and clubs,
eating everything from eggs to spaghetti. He and Midori eat lunch once in a department store
food court, thus combining the entities of food and consumerism. At one point, he even acquires
a job as a server at an Italian restaurant. Food definitely plays an important role in the
development of the cityscape. Midori and Watanabe are always around food and drink. During
their first date at her house, Midori cooks a feast in the Kansai style. Even prior to this event,
their first formal meeting took place in a small restaurant. The repeated image of Midori and
Watanabe’s presence around food in the cityscape represents sustenance, the necessary elements
of life. Except for one meal at the sanatorium and the birthday cake during the catastrophic
celebration of Naoko’s twentieth birthday, we do not see Naoko and Watanabe eating together.
As a couple, they lack the necessary nourishment for survival. Although the landscape provides
its own sustenance, food is a concern only in the realistic scape of the city.
Also unlike the landscape which, in its idealism, is almost as fabricated as it is real, the
city presents us with a tangible reality, an anchor of sorts in the textual narrative. Celeste
Loughman observes that the placenames and locations given by Watanabe are real and
49
“indisputably Japanese. . . . The environment is stable, fixed. Within that geographic frame,
however, is the far less stable world of social interaction in which traditional Japanese culture
has all but disappeared and there are no fixed markers anywhere” (88). As Loughman suggests,
the city presents us with a paradox of meaning. On one side, the environment is stable.
However, the characters within this geographical framework are unstable. Social interactions are
no longer what they used to be. In traditional Japanese society, the concept of uchi/soto
[“inside/outside”] determines the type of behavior people exhibit to one another. Jane M.
Bachnik writes that “these distinctions are crucially important: uchi/soto is a major
organizational focus for Japanese self, social life, and language” (3). Similarly, James Valentine
writes that “it is vital in Japanese social interaction to adopt suitable form, to know how to
behave appropriately” (38). The knowledge of whether someone is on the “inside” or the
“outside” of one’s particular sphere dictates how one deals with that individual. However, in the
cityscape of Norwegian Wood, the cultural dynamics of uchi/soto have become the victims of
Strecher’s “late-capitalist consumerist State.” Yet, despite the odds against it, the characters still
try to interact with one another and establish relationships. One of these main interactions that
never fully succeeds is Watanabe’s relationship with Midori.
Storey makes a valid claim when she writes, “Midori is associated with the ‘real world’
of urban Tokyo as opposed to Naoko’s internal world of the psyche at Ami Lodge . . . [she is]
usually situated in opposition to Naoko” (163). Truly, Midori is everything Naoko is not:
assertive, lively, active real. In fact, the differences between them are obvious. For one thing,
the settings in which we find them are markedly different—Naoko is in the ideal landscape, and
Midori is in the reality of the cityscape. For another thing, Watanabe describes Naoko and
Midori in completely different terms. The only noticeable similarity between them (other than
50
the fact that they are both women) is that they both make demands of Watanabe. However, these
demands are also vastly different from one another. For Naoko, the demand, as I stated earlier,
involves a contract of remembering, of mental memorializing, so that she may achieve an
immortality of sorts. On the other hand, Midori demands the attention of the here and now, real,
physical attention in a real, physical world. Unlike Naoko, Midori is only concerned with the
present life. Her hope is not on a future of immortality that she will be unable to see or control.
We see this vividly when Midori says, “But I’m so lonely! I want to be with someone! I know
I’m doing terrible things to you, making demands and not giving you anything in return, saying
whatever pops into my head, dragging you out of your room and forcing you to take me
everywhere, but you’re the only one I can do stuff like that to!” (Murakami 226-27). Although
not explicitly stated, this quotation suggests urgency, a desire to “be with someone” now.
Conversely, Naoko’s only real request is to be remembered. She never wants to be with anyone,
except perhaps with her dead boyfriend Kizuki. Midori, though, desires a physical presence and
attention to her every move.
There are similarities between the depictions of Naoko and Midori as animals. But, while
such depictions do occur to both characters, there are noteworthy differences in these portrayals.
Although Midori’s sister and Midori herself sometimes label Midori an animal, the language is
different from that used to describe Naoko, and Watanabe’s connections of Midori to the natural
world are infrequent at best. Indeed, the comparisons made are less indicative of the natural
world and more indicative of the wildness or wilderness of the city. For example, when
Watanabe tries to talk to an angry Midori, her sister says, “Well, now you’ve got her boiling
mad. And once she gets mad, she stays that way. Like an animal” (Murakami 242). There are
four specific points about this passage that I want to discuss.
51
In the first place, Midori’s connection to animal life is based upon a conditional state.
The linguistic paradigm of “now” and “once” necessitates a then and before. “Once she gets
mad” implies that there is a before; there is a prior state, an order of things preceding this “now”
state of animal-like behavior. In order for her to be an “animal,” she must “get” to that state. In
other words, she must change states. The level of anger that is required to put her on “animal”
status is fairly large, as the adjective “boiling” suggests. She is not “like an animal” all the time.
In essence, Midori, unlike Naoko, is not naturally natural. An outside force or catalyst (in this
case Watanabe’s neglect) must propel her into a more primal/animalistic state.
As further evidence of Midori’s unnatural state, we should examine her particular role
within the city. Due to her mother’s death and her father’s hospitalization, Midori has a job
tending to the family-owned bookstore. Valentine writes, “Professional women, though
classified above as marginal at work, clearly also challenge family and wider sex-role norms, and
thus seem to count as marginal at all levels” (51). But Midori’s marginality goes far beyond the
job place. Indeed, she evidences it in even more obvious ways. According to Midori, her
boyfriend is always getting mad at her for saying unladylike things about sex and for making
comments not befitting a lady. I will further illuminate this point later on in this chapter, but for
now, I merely want to highlight the fact that Midori’s nature is anything but natural, at least in
the as defined by our society.
Secondly and closely tied to this first point is the nature of Midori’s naturalness. As I
stated above, Midori is not naturally natural because an outside force is responsible for her shift
into the natural realm. In addition to that factor, however, we must consider the result or
consequence of Midori’s natural state. Naoko is serene like a “pool.” Watanabe writes, “Now I
saw that here eyes were so deep and clear they made my heart thump” (Murakami 19). Perhaps
52
Watanabe meant “deep” to signify the well, or “deep and clear” as in a natural pool or spring. In
either case, both images instill this sense of tranquility. He continues in that same section to
write, “. . . there was something natural and serene about the way she had slimmed down”
(Murakami 19). Again, he leaves us with images of maturation, of natural growth and a sense of
peace. Later on, in a similar manner, he writes, “Her eyes were the same deep, clear pools they
had always been, and her small lips still trembled shyly, but overall her beauty had begun to
change to that of a mature woman” (Murakami 109). Again, on the one hand, he gives the reader
the images of natural peace and of matured beauty, an idea that, I have shown in my landscape
chapter becomes significant at different points throughout the novel.
On the other hand, Midori’s natural side is wild and untamed. More often than not,
Watanabe’s comparison of Naoko to the natural world is connected to flora (i.e. cherry blossoms,
meadows, fields, woods, etc.). When he aligns her with the animal world, he does so with
animals such as butterflies and fish, animals that are typically calm and promote a sense of peace
and tranquility. The one time Watanabe compares Reiko to an animal, he likens her to a dog—
symbolically, a loyal companion and true friend. Conversely, his depictions of Midori as an
animal give the reader a sense of predatory dangerousness. I believe that such is the case
because the city represents an urban wilderness. Unlike the natural landscape in which Naoko
resides, the cityscape represents a dangerous and entangled wilderness with animals that are
predatory, rather than passive. Within the city, Midori is one of these animals.
In an introduction to a collection of essays entitled The Nature of Cities, Bennett and
Teague write that little critical attention has bee paid to the connection of the urban and the
ecological, a connection that they claim is essential for “understanding urban life and culture”
(4). In an attempt to understand this connection, Bennett and Teague address the idea of the city
53
as an “urban wilderness. They write that Andrew Light “maintains that the successful
description of the inner city as a kind of wilderness relies on the historical misperception of wild
nature as fulfilling the traditional role of classical wilderness—a savage space separate from and
inferior to the realm of civilization” (6). Although Bennett and Teague are specifically
discussing the urban setting in America, their analysis ties in well with our text. The urban
environment in Norwegian Wood is a “wilderness” of sorts, diametrically opposed to the pastoral
peace and secure serenity of the landscape. In another passage of Norwegian Wood, Midori
threatens to cry in public if Watanabe refuses to spend the night with her. As incentive, she
states, “Once I get started, I’m good for the whole night. Are you ready for that? I’m an
absolute animal when I start crying, it doesn’t matter where I am! I’m not kidding” (Murakami
223). Again, we have that “once” conditional showing that she is not always like that. However,
in this scene, she portrays herself as a wild, uncontrollable animal, an animal in an urban
wilderness.
As a dangerous animal, Midori does not threaten physical health, but rather the bonds of
normalcy to which Watanabe so tenuously holds. As a threatening or disrupting agent, she
becomes “a sign of social upheaval” (Sato 74). Indeed, her marginality not only places her
between categories, but also places her in a threatening position. Valentine writes that “specific
types of marginality reveal the mainstream through the threats they pose to cultural categories in
between which they fall” (50). As an animal, Midori is a threat to Watanabe’s limited security
because Watanabe cannot allow her to act like an “animal” within the city. He cannot allow this
“upheaval.” Excluding zoos, which are dominated and controlled, the city is not a place for
animals, unless of course we allow ourselves to view the city as an urban wilderness. Watanabe
cannot compromise his preferred level of static life by allowing Midori to shift his existence
54
even further outside the realms of normalcy. With Naoko, such a compromise is never an issue.
She is always a passive animal, small and frail, one that Watanabe cannot touch, but one that he
can, through systematic marginalization, control.
Only on their first official meeting is Midori’s animal state not threatening. Instead,
Watanabe writes, “She was like a small animal that has popped into the world with the coming of
spring. Her eyes moved like an independent organism with joy, laughter, anger, amazement, and
despair. I hadn’t seen a face so vivid and expressive in ages, and I enjoyed watching it live and
move” (Murakami 51). Echoing this sentiment, Miyawaki calls Midori “young and fresh, full of
life” (274). Although, in this image, Midori is non-threatening, it is worth observing the fact that
she is truly alive, a true living organism, Not only does this passage refer us to the passage where
Midori reminds Watanabe that she is a “real, live girl, with real, live blood” (Murakami 263), but
is also further separates Midori’s animal type from Naoko’s.
If we were to categorize Midori and Naoko as flora or fauna, Midori is unquestionably
fauna. She moves and breathes and actively lives. She is, as she says, “real” and “live.” She
acts upon other items, objects and entities. On the other hand, Naoko is better classified as flora.
She is acted upon by numerous outside influences and factors (i.e. death, sickness, Watanabe,
Reiko, Kizuki, etc.). Like a plant, she is living, but only in a passive manner, in a way that
implies a radiant blossoming and guarantees a rapid withering. Her life is passive until the end
when her only deliberate act is to end it. Her few animal traits liken her to passive animals that
are, in some way, connected to flora (i.e. butterflies and insects in general). She relinquishes her
power to Watanabe when she gives him the power of her immortality. After this act, she bases
her entire existence upon the promise mental accuracy of someone else’s memory. Thus, an
enormous disparity between Naoko and Midori is the aspect of an active versus a passive life.
55
Third, I want to comment on the phrase “like” an animal. “Like” makes this comparison
a simile, rather than a metaphor. Although Watanabe describes Naoko in simile as well, his
connection of Naoko to the landscape is far more deeply constructed than his connection of
Midori to landscape. For example, when examining the beauty in cherry blossoms that have
already bloomed, Watanabe bemoans the fact that blooming leads only to their own demise. He
writes, “An old cherry tree stood there, its blossoms nearing the height of their glory” (Murakami
246). However, the “height of their glory” signifies the end of their glory as well. In other
words, the inevitable end of something that has reached maturity is decline. There is no point of
stasis, no perfect balance where beauty can be flawlessly maintained. With this thought in mind,
he says the following:
The garden filled up with the sweet, heavy stench of rotting flesh. And that’s when I
thought of Naoko’s flesh. Naoko’s beautiful flesh lay before me in the darkness,
countless buds bursting through her skin, green and trembling in an almost imperceptible
breeze. Why did such a beautiful body have to be so sick? (Murakami 247)
In this passage, what is truly “imperceptible” is the line between the cherry blossom tree and
Naoko’s physical body. In reality, Watanabe transposes the image of the tree onto Naoko’s body
until they are inextricably bound. There is no “like” or simile in use here. In fact, Watanabe’s
descriptions of Naoko in terms of the natural go beyond the bounds of metaphor and become
devices of hyperbolic personifications.
Similarly, this hyperbolic comparison occurs earlier in the story when Watanabe is
thinking about Naoko and writes, “In the darkness, I returned to that small world of hers. I
smelled the meadow grass, heard the rain at night” (Murakami 166). More than likely, Watanabe
identifies Naoko’s “small world” with the natural world. “Meadows” and “rain” occupy a place
for Naoko the same way restaurants, subways and pornographic movies do for Midori. The
56
natural is Naoko’s world. She belongs to it and it to her. Much like the transposing of Naoko’s
body with the cherry tree, Watanabe constructs Naoko, molds her if you will, into a queen of a
forgotten paradise. After all, this is “her world,” a world in which neither he nor she have to
grow up or grow old, a world that has yet to see the rise of the modern city, a natural world full
of utopian life and devoid of pain. Midori, on the other hand, does not share this intrinsic
connection. Her connection is always in “simile,” always “like,” rather than “is,” unless she
describes herself. However, she is much less reserved than our narrator and tends to exaggerate
and push her language to the extreme.
Lastly, I want to discuss the frequency of the depictions of Midori’s animal-like state(s).
Comparisons between Midori and the landscape are infrequent at best. When such instances
occur, there is almost always a catalyst. She is rarely independently, and of her own free will, an
animal. Also, it is telling that Watanabe compares Midori to an animal only twice. The rest of
the comparisons are made by Midori herself and Midori’s sister. Thus, the connection of Midori
to the animal kingdom is weak and really only further serves to broaden the distinction between
Naoko and Midori.
Here, I want to readdress the issue of how Midori embodies the qualities of the city. In
the same way that Naoko embodies the landscape, Midori shares a pulse with the city. Despite
the correlation between cityscape, sadness, and death, there is also a vibrancy, an undercurrent of
life and activity. I make this suggestion based on the stalwart nature exhibited by Midori.
Storey writes that Midori “embraces life, and is even able to eat heartily at the cafeteria in the
hospital where she nurses her dying father. She is above all a survivor” (163). Against all odds,
alone and isolated in a city concerned only with its own continuous economic growth, Midori
survives. Like the city itself, she has a pulse, a rhythm that she refuses to sacrifice to any cause.
57
She also shares its coldness and unfeeling nature. I do not mean to imply that Midori has
no sensibility, or that she is made of stone and concrete like the city. However, she does exhibit
a tendency towards insensitivity, a tendency that is most likely a defense mechanism for survival.
For example, in a dialogue following her lunch with Watanabe, Midori remarks that when her
mother died, she “didn’t feel the least bit sad” (Murakami 75). Like the city, she has become
accustomed to people coming and going. Her sister is rarely present; both of her parents are
dead by the end of the novel, and we see her only once with friends other than Watanabe. Thus,
Midori, like the city, has experienced the inconsistency and transience of her/its visitors.
As I discussed earlier, Midori is notorious for saying things that are out of place,
inappropriate for her gender. Her desire to watch pornographic films, especially the really
hardcore S&M ones displays a fascination with the taboo, with the unmentionable. According to
Midori, her boyfriend is always censuring her for talking about sex and masturbation and similar
topics in public. At one point, Midori has a discussion with Watanabe about how the smoke they
see is from the burning of “sanitary napkins, tampons, stuff like that” (Murakami 59). Rather
than merely attempting to be informative, Midori seems to derive some pleasure from the shock
value of her statements. In addition, Midori also smokes. Although it is not necessarily
marginalizing for a woman to smoke, the way she smokes is apparently masculine. Watanabe
calls her a “lumberjack” and tells her that girls do not smoke Marlboros or crush their cigarettes
out like that (Murakami 70). Like her boyfriend, Watanabe also tries to correct her actions and
speech, but with much less urgency. He also tells her that “most girls wouldn’t talk about how
they wore the same bra for three months when they’re eating alone with a man” (Murakami 70).
Like the city, however, Midori is brusque and unashamed, unhindered in expressing her/itself.
For Watanabe, she is the splash of cold water that the city represents.
58
The last and, perhaps, the most intriguing way that Midori embodies the city is in its
newness. At their first official meeting, Midori tells Watanabe that her name means “green” and
then comments about the irony that she looks horrible in green. One can argue that associating
Midori with the color green gives her an undeniable connection to the natural world. After all,
green is often a sign of growth and new life, and people often assign the color green to grass,
trees, leaves, and other naturally occurring images. However, the idea of green as growth and
newness can be viewed in another light, one that does not predispose Midori to a natural
connection, despite the fact that normal modifiers associated with green (i.e. “color,” “youth,”
“vibrancy”) are relevant. Indeed, the same language is helpful to connect her not to nature, but
to the city itself, to the distinctiveness of the new capitalist State.
I find an incredible link between the new Japanese city, the new Japanese woman and
Midori’s name. Midori is uncomfortable in her surroundings, and she looks bad in green. She
is, in many ways, different from her peers. Her mannerisms and topics of speech and the way
she dresses are all in opposition to the habits of a traditional Japanese woman. Patricia Morley
writes, “A web of entrenched values, attitudes, and customs have bound the majority of Japanese
women to home, housework, and caring for the family” (3). Traditionally, Japanese women are
homebound, relegated to the tasks of cooking and family care. Although Midori frequently visits
her dying father in the hospital, the care she exhibits for her family is minimal. And, although
she cooks for Watanabe, it is by choice, and not through force or adherence to a societal code.
Interestingly, she invites him to eat at her place. Therefore, I suggest that we read “green” as a
colloquial label as in “so-and-so is green” or is a “greenhorn.” In such light, “green” means new,
unfamiliar, and virginal. During the 1960s and 70s, when the major parts of this story occur, the
postmodern, consumerist and capitalist city was a fairly new environment, a rather unfamiliar
59
place to most traditional Japanese citizens. After WW II, the Japanese city underwent drastic
changes—so much so, in fact, that it would have inner conflict and friction due to its
unfamiliarity with the older ideals of honor and the bushido code. Midori represents this
conflict, this confusion, this status of “greenhorn,” this newbie ideology. Additionally, “green”
viewed from this angle, also makes Midori a virginal character, a new woman. She, like the city,
cuts across the grain of what is expected and forces people either to adjust to her or to bypass
her. Like the city, Midori will not slacken her pace for anyone.
When Watanabe returns from his visit to the sanatorium, Midori is mad because he is
distracted and fails to pay her enough attention. He claims that he still has not “completely
adapted to the world” (Murakami 169), the real world, the world in which Midori lives.
Watanabe says, “I don’t know, I feel like this isn’t the real world. The people, the scene: they
just don’t seem real to me” (Murakami 169). They are not natural, and Midori is a part of that
everyday, unnatural world. Ironically, however, the scape he is in with Midori is much more real
than the one he has just left behind. Watanabe’s sense of place within the urban environment is
compromised by his desire to possess a place in the rural environment.
Much like the landscape, the cityscape is also a place of marginalization. In the
preceding pages of this chapter, I have briefly listed some of the marginalizing qualities about
Midori. Here, however, I want to do so in a bit more detail. As we already know, Midori’s
actions and speech marginalize her because they set her apart as an a-typical woman. But, there
are still other aspects about Midori’s character that continue the marginalization process. For
instance, her chosen mode of attire marginalizes her. Not only does her choice of dress
marginalize her because it diverges from a cultural norm that stipulates that women should be
modest, but it also sets her up within the city as a commodity, as the object of the male gaze, an
60
object to be possessed. When Midori goes to Watanabe’s dorm wearing a skirt that is, in his
opinion, entirely too short, Watanabe suggests that doing so in a male dormitory is not the wisest
course of action. Likewise, the doctor at the hospital expresses his disapproval as well, claiming
“You ought to come and let us open your head one of these days to see what’s going on in there”
(185). The two men with whom she interacts place her on the margin for her revealing choice of
dress. The doctor’s comment suggests that Midori’s choice is irrational. However, as a new
woman, Midori represents a “departure from state-imposed values” (Sato 15), thus further
positioning herself on the margin.
Like Naoko, Midori’s self-imposed actions and behaviors are already marginalizing by
the time Watanabe meets her, and this form of marginalization is, in a way, empowering. Midori
has attributes of power that Naoko does not. Although her topics of speech place her on the
margin, her willingness and ability to speak position her into a place of power, especially
because she is generally using that ability to assume the masculine role and asking Watanabe on
dates. In addition, Midori’s fascination with sex directly contrasts Naoko’s reservations.
However, unlike Naoko, Midori is not a tease. She makes herself available, obliterating any
hope for the passive intercourse that Watanabe wants with Naoko. As in asking for dates, Midori
is always the first one to breach a sexual topic. Her openness gives her power.
Through marginalization, however, this power is a two-edged sword. Eventually, her
powers are insufficient. Watanabe marginalizes her because coping with the city is already too
difficult. Watanabe’s sense of place must be at least partially established; it must meet some of
his expectations. As a “new woman,” however, Midori attempts to sidestep those expectations
and answer only to her own fancy. However, her approach to the city is no better than
Watanabe’s. She is still disillusioned, wandering the city trying to find some form of acceptance.
61
Although he does not play as large a role as Naoko, Midori or Watanabe, Nagasawa is
another representative of the cityscape. He is technically the male counterpart of Midori,
although he is more ruthless and insincere. Strecher notes a “distinction between the absurd
reality of the University/city, and the pastoral—yet deadly—country sanitarium where Naoko
commits suicide” (“Beyond Pure” 368). He later writes that Nagasawa epitomizes “the ‘real’
world of Tokyo” (“Beyond Pure” 369). Strecher is correct in correlating Nagasawa with the city.
Nagasawa is wealthy and gifted and planning to become a member of the bureaucracy that runs
this new Japanese capitalist consumerist State. If Midori is insensitive, Nagasawa is doubly so.
He treats everything as a game, rarely showing true interest in anything or anyone; and he cares
little about what he has to do to win this game. He displays his willingness to do anything when
he tells the story of how he ate three slugs so that the upperclassmen would leave him alone
(Murakami 32).
Aligning himself with the harsh realities of the city, Nagasawa laughs at Watanabe’s
idealism, claiming, “Life doesn’t require ideals. It requires standards of action” (Murakami 55).
Naoko’s “life” is tied up in the cityscape. He is even willing to become part of the large
capitalist machine in order to produce and reproduce “standards of action.” Yet, despite his
charisma and innate abilities, Nagasawa’s cavalier and fateful acceptance comes at a price. For,
he is as disconnected, if not more so, than the other characters. His constant cheating on
Hatsumi with dozens of other nameless one-night-stands points to the futility in his own life. He
even plays games with life in order to deal with and surmount the cityscape’s many
contradictions and unfulfilling elements. However, even his best efforts fail, and the last words
we hear from him are tinged with regret tempered by a fatalistic acceptance. Thus, the cityscape,
although more tangible and physically real, is also problematic as a place. The negotiations in
62
the cityscape are even more difficult than in the landscape, and the price is still the same: life.
But Watanabe will not allow either a failed ideal or a harsh reality to steal the life of peace and
stasis he has worked so hard to construct. Although it appears that his options are gone, he has
one place left in which to establish his place. That last option is within the realms of his own
mind: the psychescape.
63
CHAPTER FOUR: PSYCHESCAPE—MEMORY, IMORTALITY AND
ESCAPE
The psychescape is perhaps the most difficult to discuss, and yet the most important to
the story, for that is where the story literally occurs. Storey writes, “As both ‘author’ and
protagonist of Noruwei no mori, Watanabe Toru’s consciousness and experience give the novel
its shape” (139). In fact, the novel could be shaped by nothing other than the consciousness of
the narrator because it is an I-novel, and the I-novel “may be seen as an internally directed
medium of expression” (Strecher, “Purely” 367). This scape is where the story begins, occurs,
and ends. All of the images we see in the narrative are merely signifiers existing only in
Watanabe’s mind. Murphy notes that other Japanese texts “pay close attention to the natural
world with detailed descriptions, and yet the focus of critical concern has been on the ‘inner
state’ of the narrator rather than the outer state of the world depicted that gives rise to the inner
meditation” (127). This statement is integrally true within Murakami’s Norwegian Wood. The
text contains multiple descriptions of landscape and the natural world, some in surprisingly acute
detail. However, the thrust of these descriptions divides its importance between the landscape
and the innerscape of the narrator. What this innerscape signifies has, to some extent, already
been dealt with in the preceding chapters. I hope to address the remaining significations here.
As a scape, the psychescape is the site of the last negotiation. Landscape and idealism
have failed to satisfy, and the cityscape has left a sense of displacement and disconnectedness.
These two scapes have failed to produce a desirable place. Watanabe is, as it were, out of
options. Therefore, the psychescape, although unstable because of its connection to and
dependency upon the feelings and opinions of the narrator, is the last hope for our narrator.
64
If we separate ourselves from the self-absorbed musings of our narrator, we realize that
what we know of the things around him are completely dependent upon the limited first-person
view he gives us. We are “never out of this ‘virtual’ state in the Murakami text” (Strecher,
“Beyond” 359). Although Strecher applies this line of thought to A Wild Sheep Chase, rather
than to Norwegian Wood, I think we can safely apply his comment to our text. Strecher
continues writing that “one’s anticipation of the solution is haunted constantly by lingering doubt
as to whether Rat, the Sheepman, the Man in Black, or the sheep, actually exist outside the
narrator’s mind’ (“Beyond” 360). In a similar fashion, Norwegian Wood leaves the reader
questioning where to draw the line between fantasy and reality. Without delving too deeply into
metaphysics, I propose that the story may contain some fantastic elements, but its reality is
certain because the psychescape is a real place, a space that needs defining and critical attention.
Indeed, it is not my goal to discuss narrator reliability in the sense that the narrative is or is not
factual. Instead, I want to treat the psychescape as a real place, a place where the final stage of
negotiation occurs. First, I want to establish my claim that the psychescape is a viable place.
After I have done so, I will discuss how the psychescape performs the function of creating its
own place, a place of memory, escape and immortality.
Thus far, we have established Watanabe’s different views concerning two realities, those
of landscape and cityscape. In order to establish the psychescape as a “real” place, I want to use
ecopsychological criticism. Fisher writes, “The broad historical requirement of Ecopsychology,
then, is to ‘turn the psyche inside out,’ locating mind in the world—healing our dualism by
returning soul to nature and nature to soul” (9-10). For this brief section, I want to consider only
the middle part of this passage, that of turning “‘the psyche inside out,’ locating mind in the
world.” It is my contention that the psychescape is “in the world,” that it inhabits and
65
encompasses the world; it is a part of the physical world, and simultaneously, it is its own world.
Fisher goes on to writes, “If the psyche exists beyond the boundaries of the skin, then this makes
it a social as well as an ecological phenomenon, and ties our alienation from nature to our
alienation within human society” (21). Similarly, Mary Gawain, Irwin Altman and Hussein
Fahim write the following:
. . . persons, psychological processes, and physical environments need not be separated,
rather they can be treated as an integral unit. In other words, this orientation assumes that
physical settings and psychological events can be viewed as inseparable, as mutually
defining and as intrinsic aspects of person-environment units. (182)
Essentially, certain ecopsychologists sets out to prove the inherent and necessary
combination and connection of the psychological realm with the physical realm. From this
viewpoint, therefore, Watanabe’s psychescape must possess an inseparability of mind from its
surroundings. Thus, the mind itself becomes a place through which the psyche and the physical
scapes may interact with each other. Fisher writes, “. . . the ‘nonhuman environment’—the trees,
clouds, raccoons, rivers, skyscrapers, and manifold of other nonhuman phenomena that weave
together as the larger matrix for the affairs of humans—has great significance for human
psychological life, a significance we ignore at peril to our own psychological well-being” (3).
The psychescape, like the rest of the world, has a life. It exists to find this significance, to
connect itself with the rest of the world. Watanabe immerses himself in this “nonhuman
environment,” but he finds it imperfect. The taint that took Naoko has also tarnished the natural
world, a taint that Watanabe has internalized.
Although he spends much of his psychological time in the natural of Naoko and Reiko,
he fails to notice the affect of this environment upon him. His self-absorption leads him to
misinterpret the landscape, using it to fulfill his own desires and establish his preferred relational
66
orders, rather than accepting his place within it. This ignorance leads to displacement which,
incidentally, is the issue that the novel is trying to overcome. From an ecopsychological
perspective, Watanabe’s failure to establish place is directly related to his failure to dissolve the
dualism that pervades the novel. Watanabe has tried the scapes separately. He has even tried
having a foot in both at the same time. In both cases, however, his attempts to institute a place of
permanence fall short of his desires and expectations. Fisher writes, “The subject matter of
Ecopsychology is neither the human nor the natural, but the lived experience of interrelationship
between the two” (31-32). This novel is an attempt to bring them together, to use the
psychescape as a connecting entity, rather than a divisionary one.
I think that one of the reasons that Watanabe is reluctant to combine these scapes and see
himself within a larger framework is due to his need for personal space within the place. If he
goes outside himself and includes everything as a part of his psychological world, he must face
the possibility that the core of himself will cease to exist, that it will become lost within the
overarching matrix of his own imaginations. As discussed in the cityscape chapter, there is
loneliness and lack of self amidst an enormous population. However, ecopsychology explains
that Watanabe need not worry about being lost within this daunting framework. Fisher writes,
“Ecopsychology is still concerned with our suffering and happiness, our dreaming, our search for
meaning, our responsibilities to others, our states of consciousness, and so on; it just frames these
concerns within the fuller, more-than-human scope of human existence” (7). Therefore, the
psyche would, in a way, provide for its own survival. Because the psychescape is a part of the
physical world, it seeks not to avoid that world, but to find a balance between that world and
itself. In addition to critical support that the psychescape is a real place, I want to turn to a
textual support as well. Staying true to form, Murakami has embodied this final scape in a
67
human being other than Watanabe. The concept of another person managing to embody the
psychescape of someone else appears a bit farfetched. However, we can resolve this apparent
dichotomy. If Naoko is Watanabe’s muse, Reiko is his Oracle. When he is troubled about his
situation with Naoko and Midori, he seeks advice from Reiko. In addition, she is the one who
helps him deal with and overcome the sadness of Naoko’s suicide, and she “becomes his spiritual
guide through the process of self-discovery fostered at the lodge—by opening up, she suggests,
Toru, too, can recover from the ills that her practiced eye has discovered in him” (Storey 156).
Storey later writes that Reiko has a resume of in-between states (157). Not only does Reiko bear
the unmistakable marks of a mediator, but in so doing, she also establishes herself as a bridge for
Watanabe. She has been in the real world, has experienced things he has not, and was, for a
time, part of a conventional society (i.e. accomplished, occupied, married, etc). She is also his
guide through the natural landscape of the sanatorium. Therefore, she is the human link between
the cityscape and the landscape. Essentially, Reiko is the incarnation of Watanabe’s
psychescape, his aid in coping and negotiating between the other two scapes. However, she is
not a perfect conduit because she herself fails to establish the same levels of connectivity for
which Watanabe is searching. Although I am not trying to critique the psychescape through
Reiko, I think it is important to note that the psychescape at least in this manifestation is also
imperfect. Yet, despite this imperfection, I hope to show that the psychescape is real enough to
be represented by another character, to have a physical embodiment of sorts, to be personified
not merely in the mind of our narrator. We cannot rely solely on Reiko in critiquing this scape.
Instead, we must turn to the scape itself and examine the tools that it uses to establish itself as a
workable place. There are three tools that the psychescape employs to accomplish its ends. The
first of these tools is memory.
68
Just as landscape hosted nostalgia, so psychescape hosts memory. Miyawaki writes,
“From the moment the airplane arrives, the readers are lured into the world of the protagonist’s
memories” (274). From the very beginning, Murakami establishes memory as the controlling
factor in his narrative.
The story opens with a bird’s-eye-view as Watanabe’s memory flashes back to a meadow
scene after hearing a “sweet orchestral version of the Beatles’ ‘Norwegian Wood’” (Murakami
3). Storey labels this flashback a “memory landscape,” claiming that the “sounds are muted, as
if echoing from another world” (120). Although there are definite correlations between the
psychescape and the landscape, I want to mark a distinction between the two. I appreciate
Storey’s analysis, but the psychescape is not the landscape, and vice versa. In fact, the
psychescape is often the host of and, at times, the creator of the landscape. I think the latter half
of Storey’s analysis, containing the idea of “another world,” is more pertinent. For, indeed, the
psychescape is another world, a world of memory, memory that encapsulates landscape and
cityscape, and that works within and between them in a form of imaginative invention; and it is
the last place for Watanabe to reconcile his worlds, the last site of negotiation.
Negotiation in the psychescape is a difficult task. More than once in this narrative,
Watanabe relates to the reader how the memories of Naoko and her death threaten to overwhelm
him. When Naoko dies, Watanabe takes a journey across the country by himself. While sitting
by the ocean, he writes, “The memories would slam against me like the waves of an incoming
tide, sweeping my body along to some strange new place” (Murakami 273). While deeply
depressed, Watanabe’s ability to negotiate his place is nonexistent. His mind and place are
pulled by the whim of the waves. However, his memories cannot completely overpower him
because their success would indicate the failure of the narrator to progress. If he fails to
69
negotiate with his memories, to make them less vivid and painful, the story itself would not exist.
Ironically, Watanabe’s narrative is a product of his fading memory. The novel opens with an
extremely nostalgic scene in which our narrator confesses, “The more the memories of Naoko
inside me fade, the more deeply I am able to understand her” (Murakami 10). Yet, within this
deterioration, Watanabe finds clarity. Watanabe’s understanding is founded upon past memories
and experiences, but also upon the ability for him to bring them under his control. Only by
negotiating his own place in these memories and establishing his own dominance within them
can he utilize his memory for his own ends. Thus, as they fade, they become clearer. Memory
is, therefore, a theme of movement, of movement that results in understanding and acceptance.
Through the use of memory, movement from one scene to the next becomes possible. Without
the psychescape’s memory, Watanabe would be unable to traverse the scapes of his past and thus
unable to negotiate his place within them and gain an understanding of them.
As stated in the opening of this chapter, the psychescape is the panorama through which
the reader views this story. Every movement is determined by the psychescape. But, since the
story occurs almost completely in the past, the movement required here is movement through
memory. Memory is the foreground of this mental scape. It is responsible for bringing the
psychescape into the series of interactions and events that we have before us in story form. Not
only that, but memory is a requirement for existence. For this reason, it is one textual motif that
undergoes repetition. Watanabe begins his narrative by discussing memory; Naoko asks more
than once for Watanabe to remember her; and Reiko too asks Watanabe not to forget her. At one
point, Reiko even admits that she is merely “the lingering memory of what I used to be”
(Murakami 273). In essence, Reiko’s existence is tied to and dependent upon the psychescape to
remember it.
70
Another facet of the memory is its dreamlike quality. Walter describes the topic of
Aboriginal “Dreaming,” in which the dreamer is wide awake and “grasps the nature of place.” In
addition, the “Dreaming” is “full of stories delivered in song and ritual for incalculable
generations, but the tradition is connected psychically to ordinary nocturnal dream life. The time
of the Dreaming is everywhen, but through it every place in the present lives in the sacred past”
(136). Watanabe’s memory is similar to this Aboriginal “Dreaming.” Like these dreamers,
Watanabe is fully awake when the memories flood his mind, and these memories are strongly
linked to song, as we see when a rendition of the Beatle’s “Norwegian Wood” triggers
Watanabe’s memories. Additionally, Watanabe’s narrative has a facet similar to the
“everywhen.” I appreciate Walter’s use of the word “everywhen,” implying a spanning of both
time and physical space. The idea of bridging time and space links directly to Watanabe’s
mind’s ability to be eighteen years in the past and tell the story as though it were occurring in the
present, directly identifying itself with landscapes and cityscapes throughout the story.
Watanabe’s “everywhen” is an inversion of the Aboriginal one because Watanabe’s brings the
past to the present, but I do not think that this inversion disqualifies it from being compared to
“The Dreaming.”
Walter goes on to write, “The Dreaming makes the desert, which Europeans experience
as a dreary, trackless waste, an environment filled with exciting, meaningful physical features,
populated with invisible spirits, and crisscrossed with the meandering tracks of ancestral beings”
(137). Similarly, Watanabe’s psychescape “Dreaming” turns the everyday, mundane acts of a
singly, unimportant individual into an interesting story, one connected to shifts and evolutions of
culture and tradition. Only through this “Dreaming” could Watanabe make eating lunch or
drinking coffee anything but “dreary.” Thus, the memory in the form of “Dreaming” becomes
71
not only an entity of movement and spanning time and space, but also one that increases the
story’s ability to connect itself with the interests of others, thus become interesting.
Although his memories are instrumental in clarifying certain past events and
circumstances, he can not allow them to possess him, to control him. Such an allowance would
make him unable to be master of his own thoughts, and mastery is an important issue for the
psychescape. Within the cityscape, Watanabe is too disconnected to exert any meaningful
presence. Likewise, he has failed to subdue the landscape, failed to bring it under his control.
Thus, the final control left to him resides within his own consciousness. Watanabe displays this
system of control through his telling of the story.
Although all the major characters have a psychescape, their psychescapes are never
entirely open to us, except through the limited form of dialogue and epistle that Watanabe
records. This point becomes crucial in setting up the psychescape as place. The access we have
even to our narrator’s psychescape is tied to the fact that he has put pen to paper. Other than
Naoko’s letters, which Watanabe himself recounts, we have no other written, visual access to the
psychescapes of the other characters. Therefore, the psychescape is only accessed through the
willful, deliberate transmissions of its intent through the process of writing, a power that Naoko
loses as she slips further into the realm of insanity. When she locks herself insider her own head
for protection against the world and the constraints and requirements therein, she drives herself
insane. She traps herself within her own mind, becomes a victim of her own thoughts. Towards
the end of the novel, when Watanabe finds out about Naoko’s death and travels by himself
across the countryside of Japan for a month, he is dangerously close to doing the same thing. For
whatever reason, though, he pulls through, and reasserts his power over his own consciousness
by writing down this story.
72
Power of the word becomes the manifestation of control over the psychescape. Where he
failed with the other two scapes, he succeeds with his consciousness. Watanabe writes, “. . . I
often tried to write about Naoko. But I was never able to produce a line. . . . Now, though, I
realize that all I can place in the imperfect vessel of writing are imperfect memories and
imperfect thoughts” (Murakami10). Here, Watanabe regains the ability to write about Naoko,
and with this admission comes power, however imperfect. His new perceptions and perspective
have enabled him to do what he could not do before. In a way, the fading of his memory is
responsible for his newfound power. When everything was “too sharp and clear” (Murakami
10), his memories possessed him. He could not separate himself from them adequately enough
to write them down. Thus, memory itself is inadequate to guarantee power. Only memory that
is deliberately brought back under the control of the consciousness from which it originates will
result in power.
Therefore, the catch of the psychescape is whether he will control the scape, or whether
the scape will become his captor. This form of mental captivity is exactly what happens to the
narrator in one of Murakami’s other novels Hard-Boiled Wonderland and the End of the World.
In this novel, the narrator allows himself to slip forever into the world of his own psyche, forever
giving up hope of interaction with the physical world. However, Watanabe eventually acquires
the proper distance to reverse his position from signified to signifier. His memories are his
again; he is no longer a prisoner of his own mind; instead, he has reestablished dominance, at
least in a limited form, and his dominance has manifested itself in the written word, one of the
physical manifestations of the psychescape. Rather than being a slave to his thoughts, he has
made his thoughts the property of the public eye giving not only power but scope to the
psychescape.
73
Recalling Naoko, we observe that Naoko’s sickness divested her of the power of speech
as well as writing. In the few letters she wrote to Watanabe, she said, “Please forgive me for not
answering sooner. But try to understand. It took me a very long time before I was in any
condition to write, and I have started this letter at least ten times. Writing is a painful process for
me” (Murakami 43). This letter implies that she was never able to transcend the boundaries of
her own mind. Writing was painful to her because, by so doing, she had to bring her mind back
under her control. By examining one of her later letters, we can verify the fact that her ability to
control her mental condition directly affected her power of words. She writes, “In any case, I
myself feel that I am far closer to recovery than I was at one time . . . This is the first time in a
long time that I have been able to sit down and calmly write a letter” (Murakami 86). In essence,
her command of words depends upon her command of self, on her own mental wellbeing, on her
ability to travel the psyche without falling prey to it.
Eventually, however, she kills herself because she can not maintain control over her own
psyche. By allowing her inner thoughts to control her outer actions, she begins hallucinating and
finally commits suicide. Although it has taken him nearly two decades, Watanabe has found the
strength and the ability to write; he has overcome, or avoided, the same sickness that claimed
both Naoko and Kizuki.
In addition to being a memory that establishes and negotiates place and an empowered
setting that creates a world desired by the narrator, the psychescape is also the final means of
escape. When combining the other scapes or negotiating between them proves unfeasible,
Watanabe turns to this last scape for escape. Typically, Murakami’s characters are fairly
mechanical—going to work, eating, sleeping and having sex, until some catalyst propels them to
participate in some event outside the routine of their everyday lives. Loughman writes,
74
“Murakami’s characters live exterior lives that are efficient, predictable, and mechanical to
create the illusion of purpose and meaning. At the same time, inside they are saying ‘This is no
place for me” and often escape into their interior worlds of fantasy and dream, where
imagination runs free” (91). This quotation confirms the psychescape as an escape. Indeed, the
psychescape is the core of existence, the last vestige of self remaining to most of Murakami’s
characters. Essentially, this place within themselves is the final available ground where they can
find a self, where they can negotiate their place with and within the outside world. Loughman
observes that Murakami’s people (meaning the Japanese) “have lost their moorings and are
adrift” (90). I believe that this estimation holds true for the characters in Norwegian Wood as
well.
A quick examination of the story will highlight this state of detachment. Watanabe has
no real friends and no siblings; and his family is absent throughout the story. Naoko’s family is
also absent; her boyfriend has died; and she herself is residing in an asylum. Nagasawa leaves
Hatsumi, the only stable person in his life, and by the end of the story, he finds himself alone and
wondering if he made a mistake. Reiko has stabilized somewhat, but her daughter and husband
are gone; her career is over; and she lacks sufficient courage to leave her present surroundings.
Midori’s character is perhaps the best example of being “adrift.” At one point, Midori tried to
join a college group, but she quickly left when she found derision rather than community; her
mother has been dead for two years; her father spends half of the book in the hospital and then
dies; her sister is always out gallivanting with her boyfriend; and Watanabe professes his love at
one instant and leaves for a month to mourn over the loss of a love that was never his in the next
instant. All of these characters are adrift, cut off from their sense of place. How then, does
Watanabe deal with this estrangement? I believe he does so by escaping to the psychescape,
75
through an ongoing perusal of and negotiation with his consciousness to try to establish and
reestablish himself and his sense of place mentally, if not physically. Through this form of
escape, he can buy time, as it were, in a way that neither the natural laws of the landscape, nor
the fast-paced consumer-driven market of the cityscape will allow.
Despite the adverse consequences of being trapped in the psychescape, the psychescape
opens up the possibility of offering a sort of safe haven or fall-out shelter. When the landscape
blooms and then withers, or when the cityscape gets too rough, Watanabe’s psyche will afford a
semblance of security, of continuation. Storey writes that Naoko asks Watanabe to remember
her “as a sort of gesture of self-preservation . . . As a muse, she can be brought back to life only
through the narrator’s vision of her” (154). Thus, the psychescape functions as an escape for the
narrator and other characters. And, in addition to escaping to this place, the psychescape offers
Watanabe and the other characters what was also impossible in either the landscape or the
cityscape: immortality.
The conflicts within this novel, both internal and external, are a product of evolution, of
changes in location, time and environment. Although our narrator does his utmost to resist these
changes, within the physical and geographical realms of the landscape and cityscape, he is
powerless to prevent them. Although he strives to maintain the status quo and to keep the people
and things around him from maturing, his efforts are futile. Just as the scenery changes and
times change, Watanabe and his memories move and shift, relocate, and are moved. Neither he
nor his memories are not static. Thus, the psychescape is a moving entity, one that develops and
evolves, just as everything else in the story does. Despite his efforts to the contrary, neither he
nor his mind are able to stay within a static realm, an unchanging world. They are forced to
move, despite their best efforts against it.
76
As stated above, the need to be remembered is a constant desire for the characters in this
story. However, being remembered and existing only within memory is insufficient. The real
task at hand, and the one that the other characters hope will happen, is immortalization through
memorialization. They want a monument of sorts erected in their memory so that generations
later they will have a place, a static one. Walter writes, “The word ‘monument’ comes from a
Latin verb that means ‘to remind.’ Monuments are representations of any form intended to
remind people of something or someone. . . . By spraying names in paint, graffiti artists seek to
achieve what ever monument makes wants: imperishability” (152-3). Watanabe has figuratively
spray-painted the names and lives of himself and the other characters across the page. He has
cast them in print, perhaps a medium with more longevity than either paint of marble because of
print’s ease of reproduction. Thus, his book and his mind become the monuments, the
testaments, the eternal markers for himself and for the other characters. With so much of their
country changing culturally and even geographically, due to cultural amalgamation and
technological progression, the characters struggle with the idea of finality, with no life after
death.
In fact, each of the main characters deals with the subject and possibility of death, and
they do so in very contradictory ways. On the one hand, for Naoko, death is the final act, an
entity that has taken away her one love and that will eventually take her as well. She sees death
as natural, as part of the cycle to which she belongs. On the other hand, Midori sees death as
something unnatural, as something to fight against and overcome. Earlier in this thesis, I stated
that Midori is a survivor. Indeed, her view on death is that it will have to come and claim her
because, until then, she will try her best to enjoy her life. As she states while watching a nearby
fire from her rooftop, she is unafraid of death (Murakami 73). As usual, Watanabe is caught
77
between these two extremes. Like Naoko, he sees death as a part of life, rather than separate
from it. However, death also causes him to be angry him because it only seems to make life all
the more futile.
Interestingly, although Naoko is the only main character to die, she is also the only main
character to make preparations for her afterlife. Thus, she receives life after death without the
difficulty of having to maintain a societal code of maturation and negotiation. Storey writes,
“Naoko has now been fully internalized into Toru’s psyche” (154), suggesting that the
psychescape is the scape where she can exist eternally unencumbered.
If the landscape is fading and the cityscape is constantly progressing and changing how
can the psychescape provide immortality? It does so through the objective of the characters
within the novel: repeatability. Fuminobu Murakami writes that one way to escape the
“paranoid modern capitalist nightmare” is “to stop here and eternally repeat the same” (129).
Watanabe and Naoko try their best to “repeat the same,” as they exemplify through their constant
reminiscing and through their mechanical movements and routines. However, despite their best
efforts, the world often causes them to break these patterns. Each time the characters must step
outside their desired patterns or routines, they experience pain and nostalgic longing Walter
writes, “A renewal of connection to the totality of experience may end the drift of an abstraction
toward irrelevance” (142-43). However, for Watanabe, the experiential is only surface at best.
In his quest to establish a single, utopian place, he overlooks the possibility of combining his
total experiences as a means of avoiding “irrelevance.”
However, as they are now, Murakami’s characters have form without function. There is
no wartime governmental mandate to produce. The only true stability is in repetition, in the
ability to make things stay the same. Through repetition, the characters can gain a form of
78
immortality, a stable and safe form of stasis against the dynamic current of the world evolving
around them. Safety is another facet of immortality. Even if the characters’ lives in this setting
are less than secure, they can, like Naoko, maintain a sense of security through knowing their
future is assured.
Textual and critical readings support the claim that the psychescape is a real place.
Additionally, the text sustains the premise that the psychescape utilizes memory, escape and
immortalization to establish itself as a real place. Thus, we are left with only one question:
whether or not the psychescape, using all the tools at its disposal, succeeds in creating a final
sense of place. As mentioned above, the novel itself is a testament of the psychescape, of the
narrator’s ability to bring his own mind and memories under his control. Thus, the reader could
conclude that the psychescape is a success. However, Norwegian Wood lacks a sense of closure
and a happily-ever-after that many people associate with the idea of success. Indeed, the very
ending of the novel has been cause for much critical debate.
As Watanabe ends his narrative, he finds himself in a phone booth calling Midori. When
she asks him where he is, he writes, “Again and again, I called out for Midori from the dead
center of this place that was no place” (293). One of the problems with interpreting this passage
lies in the fact that he gives the reader no indication of time. The reader is uncertain whether
Watanabe is still eighteen years in the past or back in the present. A simple interpretation of this
passage might infer Watanabe’s admission to being in the “center of this place that was no place”
as indicative of the lack of success he has had in establishing a place, either in his psyche or in
any other scape. Indeed, his being in the “center” of such a place implies that he remains amidst
and deeply enmeshed within the chaos and confusion of the world he has so relentlessly tried to
escape.
79
The text, like Murakami, like Watanabe, and like the scapes themselves, leaves us with a
paradox, or a puzzle of sorts. If the psychescape succeeds, why is there so little closure? If it
fails, what was the purpose of the novel? The ways in which Watanabe uses his psychescape
suggest that the end result is neither an overwhelming failure, nor a grand success. Like the rest
of the scapes in this novel, the psychescape is a place of negotiation, and I believe the novel ends
with negotiation, that it is still negotiating. The narrator’s psychescape has finally accepted the
improbability of an ideal within the landscape and simultaneously rejected the cruel and
uncompromising reality of the cityscape. Thus, he has positioned himself once again, between
boundaries, in a place “that is no place.”
As the final grounds of negotiation, the psychescape has given Watanabe a place in
between places, in between success and failure. Susan J. Napier writes that “Murakami Haruki
show[s] this search for identity only to underline its ultimate futility in vision of a grotesque and
anonymous modern world” (455). I agree with her assessment, but, in addition to “identity,” I
would add place. The “anonymous modern world” has made it as difficult to establish place as it
has to establish identity. Thus, the end result is not a final and ultimate answer or guide, but
merely one more possibility from multiple possibilities.
80
CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSION
Throughout Norwegian Wood, Murakami addresses the issue of self-determination as
created by establishing a sense of place. As cultural changes destabilize the places to which
Watanabe desires to belong, Watanabe strives to create and maintain a place for himself that will
withstand these shifts and transformations. As the hypercommodified economy joins a global
market, Watanabe becomes obsessed with anchoring himself to a particular place and thereby
avoiding the anonymity that threatens to undermine the static sense of permanence he works so
hard to attain. Murakami’s narrator attempts to merge traditional values and ways of life with
postmodern capitalist consumerism. These attempts attest to a previous, different era, one in
which the negotiation of identity and place are not as much at stake as they are in this
postmodern culture. In order to negotiate his place within the narrative, Watanabe tries to
establish himself in three different contexts. Initially, he tries to find a place in the natural
landscape.
Turning first to Naoko and the landscape, Watanabe hopes to find peace in the serenity of
the natural world, a world as yet untainted by the city. Early on, the landscape presents itself as a
physical representation of Watanabe’s emotional mood, but it quickly hints at deeper issues. By
the middle of the story, we realize that the landscape functions as an ideal, a juxtaposition to his
other realities, an attempted reality in which he could create a world in which he feels safe. On
the one hand, landscape represents a nostalgic return of Japanese agrarianism, of returning to a
simpler, more nature-based land/human relationship. On the other hand, the landscape serves as
a marginalizing tool through which Watanabe can fabricate a semblance of the Japan that used to
function on a male/female dualism and hierarchy, a more traditional and stable Japan in which he
feels comfortable and unthreatened. Essentially, he merges the images of the landscape with the
81
women in his life, thus demeaning the women and the land as passive figures needing the
dominating hand of man. In the end, however, the agrarianism that he longs for is unrealistic,
and the disempowering of Naoko fails when she kills herself, thus taking her life and power back
into her own hands. Eventually, landscape fails to fulfill him, leaving him only with a sense of
wistful idealism and nostalgic memories. With the defeat of this first attempt, Watanabe tries
again in the cold, unfeeling realm of the city.
Within the city, Watanabe attends school, holds a few different jobs and tries to figure
out his relationship with Midori, the girl whose character is just as volatile and rapidly changing
as the city. However, the cityscape does little to entice Watanabe’s desires. He finds little to
attach himself to the city, and in fact, he leaves it as often as possible, traveling across Japan in
another fruitless attempt to find a place for himself. The cityscape also fails to afford him the
constancy he seeks. Aside from the endless cycle of consumerism and commodification,
permanence does not exist within the city’s boundaries. Marketing and its products change too
rapidly; student movements come and go; friends commit suicide; Midori’s character constantly
shifts from horny to hungry. A sense of purpose is difficult to find in this place that remembers
neither names nor faces. Idealism is unrealistic and rewarded only with reminders from harsh
realities that life will continue with or without him. Despite Midori’s admission of love, she
warns him that she will move on to someone else if he refuses to accept her now. However,
Watanabe’s ability to function within the cityscape is even more limited than his ability to
function in the landscape. The city never holds an ideal for him. It is a reality, but not one that
he likes or that he calls his own, not one in which he finds a firm footing. After this second
failed attempt, Watanabe turns to the only place left, his own mind.
82
Within this last scape, this psychescape, Watanabe makes one final effort to construct a
suitable place for himself. Here, in his own mind, he controls the final product. He is the
producer rather than the commodity. The psychescape hosts his memories and ideals but at the
same time, allows doses of reality to temper his idealism. In this scape, though, he can control
the amount of reality, unlike in the other scapes where reality comes and goes at its own pace
and its own discretion. This final scape is the last place of negotiation, a cross-roads for the
landscape and the cityscape to merge into one where Watanabe can construct a place of
indifference and escape, where he can balance his existence between group identity and
individual identity, a place where he creates and controls the atmosphere, the levels and the
overall comfortableness of this final scape.
Like his life, Murakami’s text frustrates the boundaries of “pure” literature. Thus,
Watanabe finds himself in a gray area, a space between spaces, trying desperately to grab hold of
anything stable. Through these attempts, Watanabe traverses the land, the beaches, the city, and
even his own mind in order to find a place in which he can find stability. And this stability is a
product of an attempt on the part of the narrator and, I believe, on the part of Murakami himself
to find a point of intersection between the urban and the rural, between the past and the present,
between tradition and postmodernity. Murakami’s use of three scapes indicates the multiple
possibilities of negotiation, the various ways to deal with the issue at hand. However,
Murakami’s text does not provide an overall solution. All three attempts fall short of the goal.
Yet, even in their failures, each scape partially succeeds in one or more ways that the other
scapes do not. Essentially, through Watanabe, Murakami displays a common problem in
postmodern Japan, but he leaves no clear-cut answer on how to fix that problem. Even in
offering multiple solutions, Murakami points out the problematic issues with each one.
83
Murakami’s narrator is not really a hero. His actions do not place him on a heroic scale in terms
of selfless acts of bravery and magnificence. Yet, his actions are, in a sense, heroic because they
attempt to embrace two opposing ideas simultaneously. As I stated in the introduction,
Watanabe is, perhaps, the representation of twenty-something Japanese males in post-war,
postmodern Japan. As such, he is championing a cause in which much of Japan’s population is
inadvertently implicated. Although he will receive no reward or recognition for his actions, his
successes or failures preclude a cultural outcome. His embracing of the past and the present
shows a determination not to forsake or completely immerse himself in the traditional, while
simultaneously resisting an overall conformity to a socio-economic mindset that leaves little
room for the place of an individual.
Norwegian Wood contains a multitude of issues and themes worthy of critical attention.
For the purposes of this thesis, however, I have restricted my critical attention to the issue of
place and the negotiation that occurs as the characters try to establish their places within the
narrative. These scapes are important issues in the text, with important stakes attached to them,
stakes of longevity and permanence, stakes of remembrance and marginalization. These scapes
are not ancillary settings, and I do not believe we can place one’s importance above the
importance of another. My reading suggests that they work together, that they each perform an
important function in this act of negotiation, that they are desiderata in the midst of a story the
themes of which vary greatly.
To attempt to combine these scapes into a category of setting or to ignore them altogether
would be irresponsible. I think that a complete understanding of the text is contingent upon an
understanding of the ways that the scapes operate within this story. If we fail to understand these
scapes, we invalidate the uses of multiple types of criticism. For instance, a purely feminist
84
reading would not be adequate to highlight the issues of oppression and domination within this
narrative. However, an ecofeminist lens would further our understanding of the women within
the text and their interactions with the scapes in which they find themselves. I do not suggest
that an ecofeminist reading would wholly encompass feminist concerns, but I propose that it
would complement a more traditional feminist reading. Nancy R. Howell writes, “The ecology
movement has special significant to women because of the oppression that women share with
nature” (47).
Likewise, failure to accept the psyche as a viable place will limit our critical method to
psychoanalytic critiques. While I do not propose that such critiques are, in any way, invalid, I
think that the use of ecopsychology lends itself to interpretations that are unavailable to
psychoanalysts. These interpretations give support to the idea of negotiation. If the psychescape
is a real place, then it must have properties and functions similar to the other places within the
narrative. If this idea holds true, then we have another site in which and from which to observe
the task of negotiation. In addition, ecopsychology allows us to watch the narrator’s mind
interact with and deal with the way that he places himself within the world around him.
Ecopsychology’s goal is to identify and interpret the function of the mind in shaping and
controlling the ways that one acts within a physically located context.
As I began writing the body of this thesis, I noticed that I was often distracted by tangent
thematic issues. Indeed, narrowing my focus to dealing only with these issues and critical tools
was difficult. I want to remind my reader that my intention is neither to ignore nor to gloss over
other critical means of accessing this text. Issues of narrator reliability accompanied by a
deconstructive reading would probably serve to highlight additional aspects of the text that my
interpretation neglects. Indeed, several times throughout my thesis, I made mention of the text’s
85
reception as “postmodern,” and I briefly mentioned the issue of narrator reliability However,
such neglect was not without purpose and, I hope, merit. While I recognize the existence of
these other textual nuances and critical options, I must acknowledge the space to which I am
limited within this thesis. Within this limited context, I could not possibly hope to give adequate
attention to all of the ideas and issues vying for attention. Therefore, I have limited myself to
what I considered to be a reasonable amount of material for this thesis. In doing so, I hope that I
have given at least an adequate critical and close reading of Norwegian Wood and the way that
scapes become the subject and the site of negotiation as the characters search for solid ground
during the onset of the postmodern period.
86
LIST OF REFERENCES
Armbruster, Karla. “‘Buffalo Gals, Won’t You Come Out Tonight’: A Call for Boundary-
Crossing in Ecofeminist Literary Criticism.” Ecofeminist Literary Criticism: Theory,
Interpretation, Pedagogy. Ed. Greta Gaard and Patrick D. Murphy. Urbana: U of
Illinois P, 1998. 87-122.
Bachnik, Jane M. “Introduction: Uchi/Soto: Challenging Our Conceptualizations of Self, Social
Order, and Language.” Situated Meaning: Inside and Outside in Japanese Self, Society,
and Language. Ed. Jane M. Bachnik, and Charles J. Quinn, Jr. Princeton: Princeton
UP, 1994. 3-37.
Bennett, Michael, and David W. Teague. “Urban Ecocriticism: An Introduction.” The Nature
of Cities: Ecocriticism and Urban Environments. Eds. Michael Bennett, and David W.
Teague. Tucson: U of Arizona P, 1999. 3-14.
Bigwood, Carol. Earth Muse: Feminism, Nature, and Art. Philadelphia: Temple UP, 1993.
De Bary, WM. Theodore. “The Vocabulary of Japanese Aesthetics, I, II, III.” Japanese
Aesthetics and Culture: A Reader. Ed. Nancy G. Hume. Albany: SUNY P, 1995. 43-
77.
Fisher, Andy. Radical Ecopsychology: Psychology in the Service of Life. Albany: SUNY P,
2002.
Gawain, Mary, Irwin Altman, and Hussein Fahim. “Homes and Social Change: A Cross-
Cultural Analysis.” Environmental Psychology: Directions and Perspectives. Ed.
Nickolaus R. Feimer and E. Scott Geller. New York: Praeger, 1983. 180-218.
Giltrow, Janet, and Stouck, David. “Pastoral Mode and Language in The Great Gatsby.” F.
Scott Fitzgerald in the Twenty-first Century. Ed. Jackson R. Bryer, Ruth Prigozy, and
Milton R. Stern. Tuscaloosa: U of Alabama P, 2003. 139-52.
Gregory, Sinda, Toshifumi Miyawaki, and Larry McCaffery. “It Don’t Mean a Thing, If It Ain’t
Got That Swing: an Interview with Haruki Murakami.” The Review of Contemporary
Fiction 2 (2002): 111-22.
Howell, Nancy R. A Feminist Cosmology: Ecology, Solidarity, and Metaphysics. New York:
Humanity Books, 2000.
Iwamoto, Yoshio. “A Voice from Postmodern Japan: Haruki Murakami.” World Literature
Today 67.2 (1993): 295-300.
Iwao, Sumiko. The Japanese Woman: Traditional Image and Changing Reality. New York:
Free Press, 1993.
87
Legler, Gretchen T. “Ecofeminist Literary Criticism.” Ecofeminism: Women, Culture, Nature.
Ed. Karen J. Warren. Bloomington: Indiana UP, 1997. 227-38.
Loughman, Celeste. “No Place I Was Meant to Be: Contemporary Japan in the Short Fiction of
Haruki Murakami.” World Literature Today 71 (1997): 87-94.
Miyawaki, Toshifumi. “‘A Writer for Myself’: F. Scott Fitzgerald and Haruki Murakami.”
In Bryer, Prigozy, and Stern, F. Scott, 267-78.
Morley, Patricia. The Mountain is Moving: Japanese Women’s Lives. New York: New York
UP, 1999.
Murakami, Fuminobu. “Murakami Haruki’s Postmodern World.” Japan Forum 14.1 (2002):
127-141.
Murakami, Haruki. Norwegian Wood. Trans. Jay Rubin. New York: Vintage International,
2000.
Murakami, Haruki. Hard-Boiled Wonderland and the End of the World. Trans. Alfred
Birnbaum. New York: Vintage International, 1993.
Murphy, Patrick D. Farther Afield in the Study of Nature-Oriented Literature. Charlottesville:
UP of Virginia, 2000.
Napier, Susan J. “The Magic of Identity: Magic Realism in Modern Japanese Fiction.” Magical
Realism: Theory, History, Community. Ed. Lois Parkinson Zamora and Wendy B.
Faris. Durham: Duke UP, 1995. 451-73.
Ohnuki-Tierney, Emiko. Kamikaze, Cherry Blossoms, and Nationalisms: The Militarization of
Aesthetics in Japanese History. Chicago: U of Chicago P, 2002
.
Rubin, Jay. “The Other World of Murakami Haruki.” Japan Quarterly 39 (1992): 490-500.
Sato, Barbara. The New Japanese Woman: Modernity, Media, and Women in Interwar Japan.
Durham: Duke UP, 2003.
Slocombe, Will. “Haruki Murakami and the Ethics of Translation.” CLCWeb. June 2004,
Online. 10 Sept. 2004. Available http://clcwebjournal.lib.purdue.edu/clcweb04-2/slocombe04.html.
Storey, Donna George. Speaking the Unspeakable: Images of Madwomen in the Works of
Furui Yoshikichi, Murakami Haruki, and Yamamoto Michiko. Diss. Stanford U, 1993.
Ann Arbor: UMI, 1993. ATT 9404023.
Strecher, Matthew C. “Beyond ‘Pure’ Literature: Mimesis, Formula, and the Postmodern in the
Fiction of Murakami Haruki.” Journal of Asian Studies 57.2 (1998): 354-78.
88
---. “Magical Realism and the Search for Identity in the Fiction of Murakami Haruki.” Journal
of Japanese Studies 25.2 (1999): 263-98.
---. “Purely Mass or Massively Pure? The Division Between ‘Pure’ and ‘Mass’ Literature.”
Monumenta Nipponica 51.3 (1996): 357-74.
Thomas, Julia Adney. Reconfiguring Modernity: Concepts of Nature in Japanese Political
Identity. Berkeley: U of California P, 2001.
Tamotsu, Aoki. “Murakami Haruki and Contemporary Japan.” Contemporary Japan and
Popular Culture. Ed. John Whittier Treat. Trans. Matthew C. Strecher. Honolulu: U of
Hawaii P, 1996. 265-75.
Valentine, James. “On the Borderlines: The Significance of Marginality in Japanese Society.”
Unwrapping Japan: Society and Culture in Anthropological Perspective. Ed. Eyal Ben-
Ari, Brian Moeran, and James Valentine. Honolulu: U of Hawaii p, 1990. 36-57.
Walter, Eugene Victor. Placeways: A Theory of the Human Environment. Chapel Hill: U of
North Carolina P, 1988.
Warren, Karen J. “Taking Empirical Data Seriously: An Ecofeminist Philosophical
Perspective.” Ecofeminism: Women, Culture, Nature. Ed. Karen J. Warren. Indiana
UP, 1997. 3-21.
Williams, Mary Elizabeth. Rev. of Norwegian Wood, by Haruki Murakami. Salon’s Critics
(2000). 10 August 2004 <http://archive.salon.com/books/feature/2000/09/13/septfiction/
print.html>.
89